Digital standards

Artificial intelligence

UN Human Rights works extensively in the AI field. For example, a 2021 report to the UNHRC (A/HRC/48/31) analysed how AI impacts the enjoyment of the right to privacy and other human rights in areas such as policing, delivery of public services, employment and online information management. It clarified measures that states and businesses should take to ensure that AI is developed and used in ways that benefit human rights and prevent and mitigate harm.

The UN Human Rights B-Tech Project is running a Generative AI project that demonstrates how the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights should guide more effective understanding, mitigation, and governance of the risks associated with generative AI. The B-Tech Project also contributes to the implementation of the GDC, in particular with regard to the implementation of the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights regarding AI products and services.

UN Human Rights also weighs in on specific policy and regulatory debates, such as an open letter concerning the negotiations of the EU AI Act. A brief titled Key Asks for State Regulation of AI, released in 2025, offers recommendations on AI regulation for states.

In 2018, the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression presented a report to the UNGA on Artificial Intelligence (AI) Technologies and Implications for the Information Environment. Among other things, the document addresses the role of AI in the enjoyment of freedom of opinion and expression, including ‘access to the rules of the game when it comes to AI-driven platforms and websites’ and therefore calls for a human rights-based approach to AI.

For her 2020 thematic report to the Human Rights Council, the UN Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia, and related intolerance analysed different forms of racial discrimination in the design and use of emerging technologies, including the structural and institutional dimensions of this discrimination. She followed up with reports examining how digital technologies, including AI-driven predictive models, deployed in the context of border enforcement and administration, reproduce, reinforce, and compound racial discrimination. In 2024, the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance published a new thematic report, highlighting how the belief that technology is neutral allows AI to perpetuate racial discrimination. Through examples, she examines issues like data problems, algorithm design, intentional misuse, and accountability, analysing efforts and providing recommendations for regulation to prevent racial discrimination. In 2023, the Special Rapporteur on the right to privacy published a report on the principles of transparency and explainability in the processing of personal data in AI (A/78/310), stressing the importance of taking measures to ensure that AI is ethical, responsible, and human rights-compliant. 

Several other special procedures mandate holders have discussed AI and human rights, including in reports on the implications of AI for the right to freedom of thought, the right to education, the right to health, the rights of older persons, and the rights of persons with disabilities. Important insights concerning AI have also been presented in areas such as counter-terrorism, and extreme poverty. 

In its 2021 report on new and emerging digital technologies, the Human Rights Council Advisory Committee discussed issues associated with AI.         

In 2020, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination published its General Recommendation No. 36 on preventing and combating racial profiling by law enforcement officials (CERD/C/GC/36), which focuses on algorithmic decision-making and AI in relation to racial profiling by law enforcement officials.

Child safety online

Within the work of the UN Human Rights, ‘child safety online’ is referred to as ‘rights of the child’ and dealt with as a human rights issue.

The issue of child safety online has garnered the attention of UN human rights entities for some time. The 2016 resolution on Rights of the Child: Information and Communications Technologies and Child Sexual Exploitation adopted by the UNHRC calls on states to ensure ‘full, equal, inclusive, and safe access […] to information and communications technologies by all children and safeguard the protection of children online and offline’, as well as the legal protection of children from sexual abuse and exploitation online. The Special Rapporteur on the sale and sexual exploitation of children, including child prostitution, child pornography, and other child sexual abuse material, mandated by the UNHRC to analyse the root causes of the sale and sexual exploitation and promote measures to prevent it, also looks at issues related to child abuse, such as the sexual exploitation of children online, as addressed in a report (A/ HRC/43/40) published in 2020, but also in earlier reports.

The Committee on the Rights of the Child published its General Comment No. 25 on Children’s Rights in Relation to the Digital Environment (CRC/C/GC/25), which lays out how states parties should implement the convention in relation to the digital environment and provides guidance on relevant legislative, policy, and other measures to ensure full compliance with their obligations under the convention and the optional protocols in the light of opportunities, risks, and challenges in promoting, respecting, protecting, and fulfilling all children’s rights in the digital environment.

In 2024, the resolution A/HRC/RES/56/6 on the Safety of the Child in the Digital Environment was adopted by the UNHRC. This resolution requests the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights to hold five regional workshops to assess child safety in the digital environment, involving various stakeholders. UN Human Rights is also asked to prepare a report summarising these consultations with recommendations for a global framework on child safety, to be presented at the Human Rights Council’s sixty-second session, in June 2026.

Human Rights Council resolution 56/6 requested UN Human Rights to convene a series of consultations to assess the risks to the safety of the child in the digital environment and related best practices and to publish a report on these consultations in June 2026. 

Content policy

Geneva-based human rights organisations and mechanisms have consistently addressed content policy questions, in particular in the documents referred to under the freedom of expression and the freedom of peaceful assembly and of association. Other contexts where content policy plays an important role include rights of the child, gender rights online, and rights of persons with disabilities. Moreover, the use of digital technologies in the context of terrorism and violent extremism is closely associated with content policy considerations.

In 2016, UN Human Rights, at the request of the UNHRC, prepared a compilation report exploring, among other issues, aspects related to the prevention and countering of violent extremism online, and underscores that responses to violent extremism that are robustly built on human rights are more effective and sustainable.

Additional efforts were made in 2019 when the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism published a report examining the multifaceted impacts of counter-terrorism measures on civic space and the rights of civil society actors and human rights defenders, including measures taken to address vaguely defined terrorist and violent extremist content. In July 2020, she published a report discussing the human rights implications of the use of biometric data to identify terrorists and recommended safeguards that should be taken.

In August 2022, responding to a request from the General Assembly in resolution A/RES/76/227, the Secretary-General released his Countering Disinformation for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (A/77/287) report, outlining the challenges of disinformation, the international legal framework and the information and best practices shared by states, UN entities, and others on countering disinformation. A public webpage has been published to highlight the disinformation topic.

In 2023, the Secretary-General published the Report on Terrorism and Human Rights (A/78/269), further analysing the impact of counter-terrorism measures on civic space with a special consideration on the use of new technologies in counter-terrorism efforts.

Interdisciplinary approaches

Collaboration within the UN system

UN Human Rights has led a UN system-wide process to develop a human rights due diligence (HRDD) guidance for digital technology, as requested by the Secretary-General’s Roadmap for Digital Cooperation and his Call to Action for Human Rights. The HRDD guidance pertains to the application of human rights due diligence and human rights impact assessment related to the UN’s design, development, procurement, and use of digital technologies, and was completed in 2022. The guidance was adopted by the Executive Committee in 2024 and is being rolled out. The HRDD Guidance has sparked interest from other organisations and states.

As part of the implementation of the Secretary-General’s Call to Action for Human Rights, UN Human Rights launched the UN Hub for Human rights and Digital Technology, which provides a central repository of authoritative guidance from various UN human rights mechanisms on the application of human rights norms to the use and governance of digital technologies.

In addition, UN Human Rights is a member of the Legal Identity Agenda Task Force, which promotes solutions for the implementation of SDG target 16.9 (i.e. by 2030, provide legal identity for all, including free birth registration). It leads its work on exclusion and discrimination in the context of digitised identity systems.

The Secretary-General addressed, in his report on human rights in the administration of justice (A/79/296) published in 2024, human rights challenges and good practices of the application of digital technologies and artificial intelligence in the administration of justice. The report provides a summary of UN activities to support states and civil society in their efforts to develop and implement digital and AI systems in the administration of justice, with a focus on human rights.

Technical standard settings and human rights

In June 2023, UN Human Rights presented the first UN report systematically analysing the intersection of technical standards-setting and human rights. It sheds light on how technical standards shape how human rights can be enjoyed in a digital environment. It identifies multiple challenges and provides extensive recommendations for the effective integration of human rights considerations into standards-setting processes. UN Human Rights has rolled out a project for the coming years to support the implementation of those recommendations. As part of this project, it works closely with standard-setting organisations, such as the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), and many stakeholders, including states, civil society, the technical community, academic institutions, and businesses. 

United Nations Convention against Cybercrime 

UN Human Rights participated in the process of the negotiation of the new United Nations Convention against Cybercrime, adopted by the General Assembly in December 2024. The Office supported member states with in-depth analysis and recommendations for aligning the treaty with human rights law, standards and principles, and will continue providing advice in this area. 

Neurotechnology

Rapid advancements in neurotechnology and neuroscience, while holding promises of medical benefits and scientific breakthroughs, pose a number of human rights and ethical challenges. Against this backdrop, UN Human Rights has been contributing significantly to an inter-agency process led by the Executive Office of the Secretary-General to develop a global roadmap for the effective and inclusive governance of neurotechnology.

In 2024, at the request of the UNHRC in its resolution 51/3, the Advisory Committee published a study report on the impact, opportunities, and challenges of neurotechnology with regard to the promotion and protection of all human rights (A/HRC/57/61). This report, available in an easy-to-read format, highlights the specific human rights at risk, identifies vulnerable groups, examines settings where individuals are exposed to coercive uses of neurotechnologies, and explores aspects of human augmentation. It also provides insights into solutions to maximise opportunities and outlines a protective framework to mitigate risks.

Two resolutions on neurotechnology and human rights (A/HRC/RES/51/3 and A/HRC/RES/58/6) were published in 2022 and 2025, respectively, emphasising the importance of promoting and protecting human rights in the context of neurotechnology and digital advancements. The resolutions highlight the need for ethical, legal, and societal considerations to ensure human dignity, autonomy, and non-discrimination. The most recent resolution also asked the Advisory Committee to draft a set of recommended guidelines for applying the existing human rights framework to the conception, design, development, testing, use, and deployment of neurotechnologies.

In 2025, the Special Rapporteur on the right to privacy published a report titled Foundations and Principles for the Regulation of Neurotechnologies and the Processing of Neurodata from the Perspective of the Right to Privacy (A/HRC/58/58)..

Global Digital Compact

Objective 3 of the GDC highlights the importance of fostering an inclusive, open, safe and secure digital space that respects, protects, and promotes human rights. UN Human Rights co-leads the implementation of this objective with UNESCO and safeguards the integration of human rights aspects throughout the text. In the framework of this objective, the GDC acknowledged its human rights advisory service for digital technologies, which aims to bridge the gap in expertise at the intersection of digital technologies and human rights by offering tailored advice, building capacity, and informing states and stakeholders.

Smart cities

‘Making Cities Right for Young People’ is a participatory research project, supported by Foundation Botnar, which examines the impact of the digitalisation of cities on the enjoyment of human rights. It also examines strategies to ensure that ‘smartness’ is measured not solely by technological advancements but by the realisation and promotion of inhabitants’ human rights and well-being, and explores ways to promote digital technologies for civic engagement, participation, and the public good, with a focus on meaningful youth participation in decision-making processes. Launched in 2023, this project surveys the current landscape and details key human rights issues in urban digitalisation. Based on participatory research carried out in three geographically, socially, culturally, and politically diverse cities, it produced a report with initial findings and developed a roadmap for future human-rights-based work on smart cities. Building on this first phase of the project, it will expand its geographical scope and support future youth engagement in urban digitalisation processes.

Migration

In 2020, the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance published a report titled Racial Discrimination and Emerging Digital Technologies: A Human Rights Analysis (A/HRC/44/57), outlining the human rights obligations of states and corporations to address it.

In 2021, the Special Rapporteur published a complementary report (A/HRC/48/76), addressing the issue of the development and use of emerging digital technologies in ways that are uniquely experimental, dangerous, and discriminatory in the border and immigration enforcement context. The report highlights that technologies are being used to promote xenophobic and racially discriminatory ideologies, often due to perceptions of refugees and migrants as security threats, and the pursuit of efficiency without human rights safeguards, with significant economic profits from border securitisation and digitisation exacerbating the issue.

In September 2023, UN Human Rights published a study, conducted with the University of Essex, that analyses the far-reaching human rights implications of specific border technologies. It provides recommendations to states and stakeholders on how to take a human-rights-based approach in ensuring the use of digital technologies at borders aligns with international human rights law and standards. The study draws from a collective body of expertise, research, and evidence, as well as extensive interviews and collaborative meetings with experts.

Privacy and data protection

Challenges to the right to privacy in the digital age, such as surveillance, communications interception, and the increased use of data-intensive technologies, are among the issues covered by the activities of the UN Human Rights. At the request of the UNGA and the UNHRC, the High Commissioner prepared four reports on the right to privacy in the digital age. The first report, presented in 2014, addressed the threat to human rights caused by surveillance by governments, in particular mass surveillance. The ensuing report, published in September 2018, identified key principles, standards, and best practices regarding the promotion and protection of the right to privacy. It outlined minimum standards for data privacy legal frameworks. In September 2021, the High Commissioner presented a ground-breaking report on AI and the right to privacy (A/HRC/48/31), in which she called for a ban on AI applications that are incompatible with international human rights law, and stressed the urgent need for a moratorium on the sale and use of AI systems that pose serious human rights risks until adequate safeguards are put in place. In September 2022, the High Commissioner presented a report focusing on the abuse of spyware by public authorities, the key role of encryption in ensuring the enjoyment of human rights in the digital age, and the widespread monitoring of public spaces. The new report, based on resolution 54/21, is expected to be published in September 2025. In 2023 and 2024, UN Human Rights published two briefs titled What is Encryption? and Hacking & Spyware. While the first document explains the encryption process, its restrictions, and its relationship with privacy, the second document emphasises the impact of spyware and human rights and key measures to end abuses.

The UNHRC also tackles online privacy and data protection. Resolutions on the promotion and protection of human rights on the internet have underlined the need to address security concerns on the internet in accordance with international human rights obligations to ensure the protection of all human rights online, including the right to privacy. The UNHRC has also adopted specific resolutions on the right to privacy in the digital age, addressing issues such as mass surveillance, AI, the responsibility of business enterprises, and the key role of the right to privacy as an enabler of other human rights. Resolutions on the safety of journalists have emphasised the importance of encryption and anonymity tools for journalists to freely exercise their work. Two resolutions on new and emerging technologies (2019 and 2021) have further broadened the lens, for example, by asking for a report on the human rights implications of technical standard-setting processes.

The UNHRC has also mandated the Special Rapporteur on the right to privacy to address the issue of online privacy in its 2015 Resolution on the Right to Privacy in the Digital Age  (A/HRC/RES/28/16). To illustrate, the Special Rapporteur has addressed the question of privacy from the stance of surveillance in the digital age (A/HRC/34/60), which becomes particularly challenging in the context of cross-border data flows. More recently, specific attention has been given to the privacy of health data that is increasingly being produced in the day and age of digitalisation, and that requires the highest legal and ethical standards (A/HRC/40/63). In this vein, in 2020, the Special Rapporteur examined data protection and surveillance in relation to COVID-19 and contact tracing in his preliminary report (A/75/147), in which he provided a more definitive analysis of how pandemics can be managed with respect to the right to privacy (A/76/220). In another 2020 report (A/HRC/43/52), the Special Rapporteur provides a set of recommendations on privacy in the online space calling for, among other things, ‘comprehensive protection for secure digital communications, including by promoting strong encryption and anonymity- enhancing tools, products, and services, and resisting requests for “backdoors” to digital communications’ and recommending that ‘government digital identity programmes are not used to monitor and enforce societal gender norms, or for purposes that are not lawful, necessary, and proportionate in a democratic society.’

The Special Rapporteur also addressed the challenges of AI and privacy, as well as children’s privacy, particularly the role of privacy in supporting autonomy and positive participation of children in society, in his 2021 report (A/HRC/46/37).

In 2022, the Special Rapporteur examined developments in privacy and data protection in Ibero-America in her report titled Privacy and Personal Data Protection in Ibero-America: A Step Towards Globalization? (A/HRC/49/55), and published the principles underpinning privacy and the protection of personal data (A/77/196). 

More recently, in 2023, at the request of the UNHRC, the Special Rapporteur addressed the issue of the implementation of the principles of purpose limitation, deletion of data and demonstrated or proactive accountability in the processing of personal data collected by public entities in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic (A/HRC/52/37).

In her 2024 report titled Legal Safeguards for Personal Data Protection and Privacy in the Digital Age (A/HRC/55/46), the Special Rapporteur provided a comparative study of personal data protection and privacy laws across five continents. The report examines mechanisms for data subjects to control their personal data and legal avenues for protecting their rights and addressing misuse. During the same year, the Special Rapporteur proposed the updating of General Assembly resolution 45/95 Guidelines for the regulation of computerized personal data files (A/79/173), to bring it into line with the socio-technological reality of the twenty-first century. 

Freedom of expression

The High Commissioner and his office advocate for the promotion and protection of freedom of expression, including in the online space. Key topics in this advocacy are the protection of the civic space and the safety of journalists online; various forms of information control, including internet shutdowns and censorship; addressing incitement to violence, discrimination, or hostility; disinformation; and the role of social media platforms in the space of online expression.

Freedom of expression in the digital space also features highly on the agenda of the UNHRC. It has often been underlined that states have a responsibility to ensure adequate protection of freedom of expression online, including adopting and implementing measures aimed at dealing with issues such as cybersecurity, incitement to violence, and the promotion and distribution of extremist content online. The UNHRC has also been firm in condemning measures to intentionally prevent or disrupt access to or the dissemination of information online and has called on states to refrain from and cease such measures.

In 2021, at the request of the UNHRC resolution 47/16, the High Commissioner prepared a report on internet shutdowns (A/HRC/50/55), which looks at trends in internet shutdowns, analysing their causes, legal implications, and impact on a range of human rights, including economic, social, and cultural rights. She called on states to refrain from the full range of internet shutdowns and for companies to uphold their responsibilities to respect human rights. She stressed the need for development agencies and regional and international organisations to bridge their digital connectivity efforts with efforts related to internet shutdowns. The UNHRC resolution 57/29 mandated UN Human Rights 

to prepare a report on a human rights approach to meaningful connectivity and overcoming digital divides, including addressing threats to individuals’ access to the internet. The report will be presented in June 2026. 

UN Human Rights also weighs in on a range of law-making processes that are relevant to the exercise of the right to freedom of expression. For example, it has engaged with the development of the EU Digital Services Act and commented extensively on global trends in regulating social media.

Special Rapporteurs on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression have been analysing issues relating to free expression in the digital space for more than a decade. Reports in the first half of the 2010s already addressed the importance of universal access to the internet for the enjoyment of human rights, free expression in the context of elections, and the adverse impacts of government surveillance on free expression. In 2018, the Special Rapporteur published a report on online content regulation. It tackles governments’ regulation of user-generated online content, analyses the role of companies, and recommends that states should ensure an enabling environment for online freedom of expression and that businesses should rely on human rights law when designing their products and services. UN Human Rights published a brief on the thematic report titled A Human Rights Approach to Online Content Regulation. The same year, he also presented to the UNGA a report addressing freedom of expression issues linked to the use of AI by companies and states. A year later, the Special Rapporteur presented a report to the UNGA on online hate speech that discusses the regulation of hate speech in international human rights law and how it provides a basis for government actors considering regulatory options and for companies determining how to respect human rights online.

In 2020, the Special Rapporteur issued Disease Pandemics and the Freedom of Opinion and Expression, a report that specifically tackles issues such as access to the internet, which is highlighted to be ‘a critical element of healthcare policy and practice,  public information, and even the right to life’. Other reports addressed the vital importance of encryption and anonymity for the exercise of freedom of opinion and the threats to freedom of expression emanating from widespread digital surveillance.

The Special Rapporteur, while acknowledging the complexities and challenges posed by disinformation in the digital age, noted that responses by states and companies to counter disinformation were inadequate and detrimental to human rights. In her 2021 report Disinformation and Freedom of Opinion and Expression (A/HRC/47/25), she examined the threats posed by disinformation to human rights, democratic institutions, and development processes, and called for multidimensional and multistakeholder responses to disinformation that are well grounded in the international human rights framework and urged companies to review their business models and states to recalibrate their responses to disinformation.

More recently, in 2022, the Special Rapporteur issued Reinforcing Media Freedom and the Safety of Journalists in the Digital Age (A/HRC/50/29), a report in which she calls on states and the international community to strengthen multistakeholder cooperation to protect and promote media freedom and the safety of journalists in the digital age, and ensure independence, pluralism, and viability of the media. She also calls on digital services companies and social media platforms to respect the UNGPs on BHR.

Online hate speech and discrimination have also been addressed by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion and belief. For instance, a report published in 2019 underscored the online manifestation of antisemitism (including antisemitic hate speech) and shared best practices from the Netherlands and Poland. The report highlights that governments have an affirmative responsibility to address online antisemitism, as the digital sphere is now the primary public forum and marketplace for ideas’. In another document published that same year, the Special Rapporteur assesses the impact of online platforms on discrimination and on the perpetuation of hostile and violent acts in the name of religion, as well as how restrictive measures such as blocking and filtering of websites negatively impact the freedom of expression.

The issue of online blasphemy and undue limitations on expressing critical views of religions and beliefs imposed by governments has also been addressed on a number of occasions, including in a 2018 report.

In 2024, the High Commissioner for Human Rights, at the request of the UNHRC, prepared a thematic report identifying challenges and best practices in assessing civic space trends, along with recommendations to enhance information-gathering. Based on inputs from states and civil society, the report highlights the roles of various actors, common elements of civic space, gaps, and challenges, and calls for increased data access, safe working conditions for contributors, and improved assessment of online civic space trends. UN Human Rights published a brief titled Tracking civic space trends, related to this report.

In 2023 and 2025, UN Human Rights published two briefs on internet shutdowns and social media platforms in the Middle East, North and East Africa. While the first document explains the importance of shutdowns, their human rights violations, and how to prevent and respond to them, the second document addresses issues faced by human rights defenders, including online attacks, platform policies, and access, and highlights key recommendations.During its 58th session, the UNHRC adopted a resolution titled Human Rights Defenders and New and Emerging Technologies: Protecting Human Rights Defenders, Including Women Human Rights Defenders, in the Digital Age (A/HRC/58/23), which asked UN Human Rights to convene regional workshops and prepare a report about risks created by digital technologies to human rights defenders and best practices to respond to these concerns.

Gender rights online

Within the work of the OHCHR, ‘gender rights women rights and gender equality online’

On several occasions, UN Human Rights and the UNHRC have reiterated the need for countries to bridge the gender digital divide and enhance the use of ICTs, including the internet, to promote the empowerment of all women and girls. It has also condemned gender-based violence committed on the internet. Implementing a 2016 UNHRC resolution on the Promotion, Protection, and Enjoyment of Human Rights on the Internet, in 2017, the High Commissioner on Human Rights prepared a report on ways to bridge the gender digital divide from a human rights perspective.

Rights of persons with disabilities

The promotion and protection of the rights of persons with disabilities in the online space have been repeatedly addressed by the UN Special Rapporteur on the rights of persons with disabilities. A 2016 report underscored that ICTs, including the internet, can increase the participation of persons with disabilities in public decision-making processes and that states should work towards reducing the access gap between those who can use ICTs and those who cannot.

Nevertheless, a 2019 report stressed that the shift to e-governance and service delivery in a digital manner can hamper access for older persons with disabilities who may lack the necessary skills or equipment.

The Special Rapporteur also examined the opportunities and risks posed by AI, including discriminatory impacts in relation to AI in decision-making systems. In his 2021 report (A/HRC/49/52), the Special Rapporteur emphasises the importance of disability-inclusive AI and the inclusion of persons with disabilities in conversations about AI.

More recently, in 2024, at the request of the UNHCR resolution 51/10, the High Commissioner prepared a report on cyberbullying against persons with disabilities. The report examines the experiences of persons with disabilities facing cyberbullying, the relevant human rights frameworks, prevailing trends and challenges, promising counter-cyberbullying practices, and provides recommendations for rights-respecting responses and inclusion in the digital environment.

Rights of older persons

The mandate of the Independent Expert on the enjoyment of all human rights by older persons has repeatedly addressed complex issues relating to digital technologies, for example, in the report Robots and Rights: The Impact of Automation on the Human Rights of Older Persons (A/HRC/36/48) and on data gaps concerning older persons (A/HRC/45/14). In 2026, UN Human Rights will publish a report on countering cyberbullying against older persons, as requested by the UNHRC (resolution 57/6).  

Freedom of peaceful assembly and association

The exercise of the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and association in the digital environment has attracted increased attention in recent years. For example, the High Commissioner presented a report on new technologies such as ICTs and their impact on the promotion and protection of human rights in the context of assemblies, including peaceful protests, to the 44th session of the UNHRC. The report highlighted many of the opportunities for the exercise of human rights that digital technologies offer, analysed key issues linked to online content takedowns, and called on states to stop the practice of network disruptions in the context of protests. It also developed guidance concerning the use of surveillance tools, in particular facial recognition technology.

In July 2020, the Human Rights Committee published its General Comment No. 37 on Article 21 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (the right of peaceful assembly), which addresses manifold aspects arising in the digital context.

In 2019, the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association published a report for the UNHRC focusing on the opportunities and challenges facing the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and association in the digital age. In the report, he condemned the widespread practice of internet shutdowns and raised concerns about technologically mediated restrictions on free association and assembly in the context of crises.

Economic, social, and cultural rights

In March 2020, the UN Secretary-General presented a report on the role of new technologies for the realisation of economic, social, and cultural rights to the UNHRC. He identified the opportunities and challenges held by new technologies for the realisation of economic, social, and cultural rights and other related human rights, and for the human-rights-based implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The report concludes with recommendations for related action by member states, private companies, and other stakeholders.

More recently, in 2022, the Special Rapporteur on the right to education presented a report on the impact of digitalisation of education on the right to education (A/HRC/50/32) to the UNHRC, calling for the integration of human rights legal framework in digital education plans in the context of the increasing digitalisation of education.

The Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights has published reports on technology-related topics, including the right to science (A/HRC/55/44 and A/HRC/55/44/Corr.1)  and the relationship between human rights and intellectual property rights (A/70/279 and A/70/279/Corr.1 and A/HRC/28/57). The Independent Expert on the effects of foreign debt and other related international financial obligations of states on the full enjoyment of all human rights, particularly economic, social and cultural rights, has presented a report on international financial obligations, digital systems, and human rights (A/HRC/52/34).

UN Human Rights works extensively on the human rights dimensions of development finance, including technology-related aspects, in, for example, a benchmarking study on development finance institutions’ safeguard policies, a study on remedy in development finance and submissions to development finance institutions addressing technology-related policies and practices.

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