Estonia has emerged as a global leader in digital innovation, transforming its public services and economy through comprehensive e-governance initiatives. The nation’s digital identity system, established in 2002, enables citizens to access a wide array of services online, including tax filings, healthcare records, and even voting in elections. This commitment to digital accessibility has resulted in 99% of public services being available online, significantly enhancing efficiency and citizen engagement.
In 2014, Estonia introduced the e-Residency program, allowing individuals worldwide to establish and manage businesses within the European Union remotely. This initiative has attracted entrepreneurs globally, fostering economic growth and positioning Estonia as a hub for digital business.
The country’s proactive approach to cybersecurity includes advanced technologies and international collaborations, ensuring the resilience and security of its digital infrastructure. Estonia’s legal framework supports this digital ecosystem, with the Personal Data Protection Act aligning closely with the EU’s GDPR to safeguard personal data.
In the realm of artificial intelligence, Estonia has implemented a comprehensive AI strategy, emphasizing collaboration among government entities, academia, and the private sector. Initiatives like Bürokratt aim to enhance public services through AI-driven virtual assistants, reflecting the country’s commitment to integrating cutting-edge technologies into governance.
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The Ministry of Smart Administration and Regional Development is the primary authority overseeing e-government and digital transformation in Latvia. The Ministry is responsible for developing, coordinating, and implementing national policies related to digital transformation, electronic government, and information and communication technologies (ICT) within public administration. This includes managing state information systems and promoting the one-stop-shop principle for public and local government services. The State Regional Development Agency (SRDA), operating under the Ministry’s supervision, plays an important role in implementing national and EU financial instruments aimed at regional development. The SRDA manages the State and Local Government Services Portal, which serves as a single access point to online resources and electronic services provided by various public administration institutions.
Civil society organisations, such as ManaBalss.lv (My Voice), play an active role in Latvia’s internet governance. Established in 2011, ManaBalss.lv is a civic platform that enables citizens to propose and support initiatives for submission to the national parliament. The platform has been instrumental in promoting digital civic participation and has contributed to numerous legislative changes.
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Romania’s internet regulation framework aligns with European Union (EU) standards, focusing on data protection, cybersecurity, telecommunications oversight, and the implementation of the Digital Services Act (DSA). Romania enforces the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) through Law No. 190/2018, which addresses national specifics like processing sensitive data and workplace surveillance. The National Supervisory Authority for Personal Data Processing (ANSPDCP) ensures compliance. In line with EU directives, Romania aims to protect critical information infrastructures and strengthen cyber defence capabilities. The National Cyber Security Directorate (DNSC) oversees the implementation of cybersecurity measures.
The National Authority for Management and Regulation in Communications (ANCOM) manages radio frequencies, promotes market competition, and safeguards consumer rights under Government Emergency Ordinance No. 111/2011.
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Ireland has firmly positioned itself as a leading digital hub, underpinned by advanced infrastructure and a dynamic technology sector. As of early 2025, internet usage in Ireland reached 98.9%, reflecting widespread digital engagement. The country’s mobile broadband adoption is robust, with a 98% uptake rate—the highest in the EU—and 5G coverage extending to 84% of populated areas.
Dublin’s Grand Canal Dock area, dubbed ‘Silicon Docks,’ hosts European headquarters for tech giants like Google, Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter, employing approximately 7,000 professionals. The National Digital Research Centre (NDRC), managed by Dogpatch Labs and regional partners, accelerates entrepreneurial ventures, providing mentorship and funding to startups.
The government’s refreshed National AI Strategy, ‘AI – Here for Good,’ outlines objectives to build public trust in AI, promote its adoption across enterprises, and enhance digital skills through initiatives like Skillnet Ireland and Springboard+. However, the rapid growth of data centers, essential to the AI boom, has led to concerns about energy consumption, with these facilities accounting for 21% of the nation’s electricity usage.
Ireland’s strategic Atlantic location positions it as a key node in global data connectivity, hosting several significant submarine cables that enhance international communications and energy interconnectivity.
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Hungary is home to five national European Digital Innovation Hubs (EDIHs): DigitalTech EDIH, MI-EDIH, HPC-EDIH, Data-EDIH, and AEDIH. These hubs provide a range of services to support the digitalization of businesses, including pre-deployment technology testing, advice, skills development, training, and access to financing opportunities. They have been instrumental in helping Hungarian firms adapt to challenging economic conditions and remain competitive through digital transformation
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Slovakia’s digital economy is on an upward trajectory, driven by a robust tech startup ecosystem, government support, and a high level of internet penetration. The country continues to focus on improving digital infrastructure and expanding internet access to ensure that all citizens can benefit from the opportunities presented by digitalization. As Slovakia moves forward, addressing challenges such as the digital skills gap and ensuring regulatory frameworks support innovation will be key to sustaining growth in the digital economy.
Slovakia adheres to a robust legal framework governing internet and e-commerce activities, ensuring compliance with EU directives while promoting an entrepreneurial environment. The primary legislative instrument regulating online commerce in Slovakia is the Electronic Commerce Act (ECA), which governs various aspects of electronic transactions, including digital contracts, consumer protection, and commercial communications.
In 2023, Slovakia initiated the Slovak Quantum Communication Infrastructure (skQCI) project, aiming to connect 12 academic institutions through advanced quantum communication networks. This project also includes preparatory phases for establishing connections with neighbouring countries, positioning Slovakia at the forefront of secure communication technologies.
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Malta has established a growing presence in the field of digital diplomacy, leveraging its position as a small but influential state within the European Union. Its digital diplomacy efforts are focused on advocating for a rules-based digital order, promoting data privacy, and supporting the responsible use of emerging technologies like AI and blockchain. Malta actively participates in international forums that discuss internet governance, cybersecurity, and the digital economy, often aligning its diplomatic efforts with EU policies. Malta has made digital cooperation a core aspect of its foreign relations, working closely with international partners to enhance cross-border digital trade and the regulation of digital platforms.
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Internet governance in Croatia encompasses a comprehensive regulatory framework, policies, and practices that oversee the use and development of the internet within the country. The primary legal framework regulating internet services is the Electronic Communications Act, which ensures compliance with EU directives and promotes competition and consumer protection. The Croatian Regulatory Authority for Network Industries (HAKOM) oversees the telecommunications sector, including internet services, ensuring fair competition and safeguarding consumer rights.
In terms of digital infrastructure, Croatia has made significant strides. The National Plan for Broadband Development 2021–2027 aims to provide all households with download speeds of at least 100 Mbps and public institutions with symmetric connections of at least 1 Gbps. As of early 2025, median mobile internet download speeds reached 93.63 Mbps, while fixed broadband speeds stood at 80.78 Mbps, reflecting significant improvements over the previous year. The country is also progressing in 5G deployment. A1 Croatia has been actively expanding its 5G network, with plans to achieve 90% population coverage in urban areas and 25% geographical coverage in rural regions by the end of 2025. The rollout has primarily focused on major cities such as Zagreb, Split, and Rijeka, with gradual expansion into smaller towns and rural areas.
Croatian stakeholders are active participants in various internet governance forums and initiatives at the regional and global levels. Croatian stakeholders participate in the annual South Eastern European Dialogue on Internet Governance (SEE+) and Dialogue on Internet Governance (EuroDIG) events, which bring together stakeholders from the region to discuss digital policy-related issues and challenges. At the global level, Croatia is a member of the Internet Governance Forum (IGF). Croatia also has a national internet governance initiative called Croatian IGF, which was established as a bottom-up, multistakeholder platform for discussing internet-related public policy issues.
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The digital economy in Italy is experiencing significant growth, driven by advancements in technology and strategic investments. The country’s digital market is projected to reach approximately $2.77 billion in 2024, with significant contributions from sectors like security services, cloud computing, and AI. AI, in particular, is expected to add substantial value to the Italian economy, potentially contributing up to €312 billion annually, equivalent to 18% of the GDP.
In the Italian context, AI is expected to play a pivotal role in key sectors such as retail, financial services, healthcare, education, and the ‘Made in Italy’ industries, including agri-food, tourism, and manufacturing. These sectors are uniquely positioned to benefit from AI, leveraging its capabilities to preserve and enhance Italy’s competitive advantages on the global stage.
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Burundi has steadily built its digital infrastructure foundation, anchored by the Burundi Backbone System (BBS), a 1,245 km national fiber-optic network launched in 2013–2014 that links all 18 provinces and provides high-speed connectivity to government institutions, universities, banks, and ISPs. Mobile networks cover most of the population, with 2G reaching ~97%, 3G ~50%, and 4G around ~34% as of 2025, though rural areas still experience significant gaps. Recent efforts include solar-powered towers and satellite broadband (e.g., SpaceX Starlink) to enhance resilience and access in underserved areas.
Adoption remains modest: approximately 1.78 million internet users (~12.5% penetration) and 8.04 million mobile connections (~56.6% of the population) in early 2025. Digital literacy and advanced ICT skills are limited, with much of the population remains excluded from transformative digital services.
Institutions like MINCOTIM/SETIC and ARCT, alongside the World Bank–backed Digital Foundations Project (PAFEN), 1are steering digital expansion via policy, regulation, and rural connectivity programs. Nonetheless, the country’s digital economy is described as ‘nascent,’ with regulatory gaps, particularly in e-commerce, data protection, and digital trade, limiting full-scale digital integration and economic potential
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