Internet governance in Portugal involves the development and implementation of policies, standards, and practices that regulate the internet infrastructure, digital services, and online activities within the country. This process relies on a multistakeholder approach that includes government bodies, private sector entities, civil society organisations, and academic institutions, all working towards the common goal of ensuring a secure, inclusive, and innovative digital environment.
A key institution in this realm is the National Regulatory Authority (ANACOM). ANACOM is responsible for overseeing electronic communications and postal services in Portugal. It ensures compliance with both national and European Union regulations, promotes competition, and protects consumer rights. ANACOM’s functions include spectrum management, monitoring the quality of service provided by telecom operators, initiating cybersecurity measures, and fostering innovation within the telecommunications sector.
The Ministry of Economy and Digital Transition is also pivotal in shaping and implementing digital policies in Portugal. This ministry spearheads several initiatives aimed at promoting digital transformation across various sectors.
At the global connectivity level, Portugal serves as a critical submarine cable nexus. Roughly 25 % of the world’s submarine fibre-optic cables pass through its exclusive economic zone, making it the only European country directly connected to all continents. Leading cables such as EllaLink provide direct, low-latency links between Sines and Fortaleza, Brazil, and are complemented by Google’s Equiano and the expansive 2Africa system. Innovative SMART cable initiatives, including the Atlantic CAM and pilots like EllaLink GeoLab, integrate ocean sensing with telecommunications infrastructure, enhancing Portugal’s role in marine science and environmental monitoring.
Portugal ranks highly on the Democratic Economy and Society Index (DESI), particularly in connectivity and public services, though it continues to seek improvements in basic digital skills, SME digital adoption, cloud, AI, and data analytics uptake. National initiatives such as INCoDe 2030 and the AI Portugal 2030 strategy are closing skill gaps and advancing the country’s AI and digital literacy capacities.
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France has established itself as a leader in digital infrastructure and connectivity, with one of the most advanced fibre-optic broadband networks globally. Through its Plan France Très Haut Débit, France has achieved more than 90% fibre coverage, among the highest in Europe, with strong performance in 5G deployment, covering over 88% of the population. The country also boasts robust data centre capacity and leads in submarine cable connections in Europe, making it a critical hub for digital traffic. Its cloud infrastructure is expanding rapidly, supported by public-private investments targeting sovereignty and sustainability.
In data protection, France is among the most influential countries, with the CNIL being one of Europe’s most active data protection authorities. France enforces GDPR rigorously and has introduced pioneering approaches linking privacy with environmental impacts, algorithmic transparency, and cybersecurity. Its cybersecurity strategy is comprehensive, covering critical infrastructure protection, incident response, industrial IoT, and defence, while ANSSI is widely regarded as a model national agency. France is also highly engaged in EU-wide digital policy coordination under frameworks like the Digital Services Act and NIS2.
France is positioning itself as an AI leader through massive investments and long-term strategies. It ranks among the top countries in AI infrastructure, with significant spending on supercomputers and cloud resources for AI research and deployment. Its national AI strategies emphasise ethics, open innovation, and industrial competitiveness, supporting both civilian and defence applications. France consistently ranks high in global digital readiness indicators, particularly in connectivity, cybersecurity, digital government services, and digital R&D capacity, making it one of the strongest digital performers globally.
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The country benefits from near-universal internet access, a highly developed fibre-optic network, and one of the earliest and most extensive 5G deployments in Europe. The Ultra-High-Speed Broadband Strategy aims to provide 1 Gbps coverage nationwide, including in rural areas, while POST Luxembourg leads the deployment of AI-powered software-defined access networks. The country hosts multiple Tier III and IV data centres and operates MeluXina, a national high-performance computing facility, which supports research, AI training, and simulations.
Luxembourg’s government places strong emphasis on digital public services, with its electronic governance strategy targeting full digitalisation of administrative procedures. The ‘once-only’ principle, interoperability between government systems, and inclusion measures are core pillars of its approach, managed by the Ministry for Digitalisation and the CTIE. As of 2024, over 90 percent of public services are available online. In terms of regulation, Luxembourg adheres to the EU framework on digital services and markets, while also shaping national strategies for emerging technologies, including AI, quantum computing, and secure data governance.
The country’s cybersecurity architecture is guided by the National Cybersecurity Strategy IV, which focuses on strengthening infrastructure resilience, building digital trust, and supporting the secure digital economy. Key players such as GOVCERT, CIRCL, and MILCERT coordinate responses to cyber threats across sectors. Luxembourg also engages in international cyber exercises and collaborates with EU, NATO, and Benelux partners. The private sector is involved through platforms like SECURITYMADEIN.LU, and research institutions participate in threat intelligence sharing.
Data protection is overseen by the CNPD, which enforces the GDPR and national data protection law. Luxembourg is known for pioneering GDPR certification mechanisms, such as the GDPR-CARPA framework, and has been involved in notable enforcement actions, including the upheld fine against Amazon. The CNPD provides guidance on AI regulation and coordinates with EU-level bodies to monitor emerging risks.
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Lithuania’s digital governance is strongly shaped by the EU frameworks and coordinated through national planning documents, including the National Digital Decade Roadmap and the broader state digitalisation programme context referenced in the Commission’s country reporting. The European Commission’s Digital Decade country reporting notes that Lithuania performs consistently well on digital public services, while still needing continued effort on some targets (e.g. skills and connectivity).
Regarding AI policy, Lithuania has a national AI strategy, ‘A Vision of the Future‘, and is building an AI regulatory sandbox through the Innovation Agency to support testing and compliance. In cloud/public-sector IT, the State Digital Solutions Agency (VSSA) has announced plans to use public cloud services for state information resources in line with national management rules.
Lithuania’s internet infrastructure includes multiple peering points and a small number of critical international routes. Internet Society Pulse reports 4 active IXPs in Lithuania, with member networks concentrated in Vilnius, supporting resilience and keeping local traffic local. The country is also connected via a Baltic Sea submarine fibre cable. In November 2024, Telia reported damage to the undersea cable between Lithuania and Sweden, with traffic rerouted to restore service.
Critical Infrastructure management lesson
Lithuania–Sweden submarine cable damage: In mid-November 2024, Lithuania’s telecom operator Telia Lietuva reported that the undersea fibre-optic cable linking Lithuania and Sweden had been damaged (‘cut’), temporarily reducing Lithuania’s international internet capacity by about one-third. The incident did not result in a prolonged nationwide outage because traffic was rerouted to alternative paths, illustrating that regional connectivity planning relies on redundancy as much as on any single cable. Swedish and Lithuanian defence ministers publicly framed the damage as a critical-infrastructure concern and noted that authorities were pursuing a thorough investigation, reflecting the wider Baltic pattern of heightened attention to undersea assets after multiple cable incidents in the region.
For online platform governance and e-commerce intermediaries, Lithuania follows the EU Digital Services Act (DSA) model, with national enforcement organised around a designated coordinator. Namely, the Communications Regulatory Authority (RRT/CRA) publicly described its role in becoming the national coordinator for DSA implementation. In consumer-facing e-commerce, the State Consumer Rights Protection Authority (VVTAT) is the core national body for consumer protection and complaints handling.
Cybersecurity is anchored in a national strategy plus a detailed statutory framework. Lithuania’s National Cyber Security Strategy, approved by Government Resolution No. 818, sets objectives across public and private sectors. The Law on Cyber Security establishes institutions, powers, and duties for cyber policy and incident management.
On data and emerging tech, Lithuania applies GDPR with national ‘top-up’ rules and a dual-supervision model: the State Data Protection Inspectorate (VDAI) is the leading authority, with the Office of the Inspector of Journalist Ethics supervising specific expression-related contexts; VDAI explains this split in its own reporting.
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Lithuania’s permanent mission to the UN:
Lithuania’s Permanent Mission in Geneva represents and defends Lithuania’s interests at the UN Office at Geneva and other international organisations, supports Lithuania’s participation in multilateral diplomacy, and serves as a reporting and coordination link between Geneva-based bodies and Lithuanian institutions. The Mission’s mandate also covers cooperation with Geneva organisations across areas such as human rights, migration and humanitarian issues, trade, and disarmament-related work, and it includes Lithuania’s representation to the World Trade Organisation within the Mission’s staffing structure.
The Netherlands ranks among Europe’s stronger digital performers. The European Commission report states that its connectivity infrastructure is in good shape, with excellent 5G services, a strong digital-skills profile, and a clear technology focus on semiconductors, AI, quantum, and cybersecurity. At the same time, the Commission notes areas for improvement, including lagging AI adoption among smaller firms and pressure on innovation funding.
At the top of the policy stack is the Dutch Digitalisation Strategy (NDS), published in 2025, which sets six cross-government priorities: sovereign cloud, responsible data use and sharing, AI, citizen- and business-centred services, digital resilience, and digital skills for civil servants.
The economic and infrastructure side is framed by the Digital Economy Strategy, which aims for a resilient, entrepreneurial, innovative and sustainable digital economy in which everyone can participate. It ties digital growth to secure, reliable, high-quality infrastructure, support for AI, quantum, blockchain and 5/6G, better enforcement of the EU digital rules, and reducing the connectivity gap for remote addresses. The same strategy openly links digital progress to public values, supervision, and strategic autonomy.
On rights and regulation, the Netherlands combines strong EU alignment with visible national enforcement. Data protection is governed by the GDPR and the Dutch UAVG, and is overseen by the Autoriteit Persoonsgegevens (AP). In AI governance, the country stands out for its public Algorithm Register, where government bodies publish information on impactful algorithms, including high-risk AI systems. In platform governance, the ACM has been fully authorised since 4 February 2025 to enforce the Digital Services Act.
A key feature of the Dutch profile is that digital governance is increasingly tied to security and geopolitics. The National Cybersecurity Strategy 2022–2028 frames cybersecurity as a whole-of-society priority, while the 2024 expansion of export controls on advanced semiconductor manufacturing equipment showed how Dutch policy can shape global tech supply chains. Because the Netherlands hosts critical chokepoints in the chip industry, decisions taken in The Hague can have effects far beyond the country itself.
Microchips, Macropower
Home to ASML, the world’s leading supplier of advanced chipmaking equipment, the Netherlands occupies a pivotal position in the semiconductor value chain. In September 2024, the Dutch government expanded export controls on advanced manufacturing equipment, requiring licences for a broader range of technologies. While framed as a national security and foreign policy measure, the decision effectively aligned the Netherlands more closely with broader Western restrictions on technology transfers to China. The new control measures illustrates how a relatively small country can exert significant influence on global digital development by controlling critical industrial chokepoints. At the same time, it highlights the growing overlap between trade policy, digital governance, and geopolitical competition. For policymakers, the case underscores a key tension: safeguarding security and strategic interests while maintaining an open, innovation-driven global technology ecosystem.
The Netherlands is also pushing a more sovereignty-minded approach to cloud and public digital infrastructure. Under the NDS, cloud is a priority, with the government arguing for a government-wide sovereign cloud service to better control public data and reduce dependence on a small number of suppliers. Together, these policies suggest a digital profile built on three recurring themes: high-performing infrastructure, strong regulation and enforcement, and a growing concern with strategic autonomy.
The Netherlands’ Permanent Representation in Geneva represents the Kingdom of the Netherlands at the UN, the World Trade Organisation, and other international organisations in Geneva. According to its official website, it works on issues including human rights, humanitarian aid and migration, trade and sustainable development, health, arms control, and multilateral diplomacy. The mission aims to advance Dutch interests and ideals through international cooperation and is currently headed by Ambassador Erica Schouten, who took up the post in August 2025.
Slovenia has been actively working on digitalising its society and economy, focusing on harnessing the social and economic potential of ICT and the internet for digital growth. Slovenia has also been committed to building a digital economy and society, strongly emphasising internet governance and access, e-government, and digital skills development. The country has been among the top in Europe in terms of internet connectivity and penetration. Slovenia’s approach to internet governance focuses on ensuring a secure, inclusive, and efficient digital environment. This effort is characterized by the integration of various stakeholders, the implementation of comprehensive strategies, and active participation in international forums.
Key Regulatory Bodies
Agency for Communication Networks and Services (AKOS): AKOS is the primary regulator for telecommunications, ensuring compliance with both national and EU regulations. It promotes competition, safeguards consumer rights, and oversees the development of internet infrastructure.
Information Commissioner: This office is responsible for data protection and access to public information, ensuring adherence to the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and national privacy laws.
Ministry of Digital Transformation: This ministry leads the formulation and implementation of digital policies. The Ministry monitors and analyses the state of digital transformation and the information society at the national level. It is responsible for the areas of the information society, electronic communications, digital inclusion, digital competencies, the data economy, management of information and communication systems, and the provision of electronic public administration services.
Slovenian stakeholders are active participants in various internet governance forums and initiatives at the regional and global levels. Slovenian stakeholders participate in the annual South Eastern European Dialogue on Internet Governance (SEE+) and Dialogue on Internet Governance (EuroDIG) events, which bring together stakeholders from the region to discuss digital policy-related issues and challenges. At the global level, Slovenia is a member of the Internet Governance Forum (IGF). Slovenia also has a national internet governance initiative called SloIGF.
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Over the past two decades, Denmark has prioritised digital transformation, resulting in a highly connected society. The country’s digital infrastructure boasts 98% 5G coverage and 95% of households connected to Very High-Capacity Networks (VHCNs), placing it at the forefront of the EU’s Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) rankings internet governance in Denmark focuses on digitalization, cybersecurity, and e-government initiatives to ensure a secure and efficient digital landscape. Denmark emphasises collaborative efforts domestically and internationally to defend against cyber threats and espionage, protect critical ICT infrastructure, and enhance digital skills among citizens and businesses. The country promotes responsible, democratic, and safe technology development through initiatives like Tech for Democracy and Tech Diplomacy.
Denmark was the first country to appoint an ambassador for tech diplomacy back in 2017. The first tech ambassador set up an office in Silicon Valley in 2017, to be close to the big players in the tech sector, eager to start a more focused and intensive dialogue with companies like Google and Facebook.
Denmark’s stakeholders are active participants in various internet governance forums and initiatives at the regional and global levels. Danish stakeholders also participate in the European Dialogue on Internet Governance (EuroDIG) events, which bring together stakeholders from the region to discuss digital policy-related issues and challenges. At the global level, Denmark is a member of the Internet Governance Forum (IGF). Denmark also has a national internet governance initiative called Danish IGF, which was established as a bottom-up, multistakeholder platform for discussing internet-related public policy issues within the country.
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Cyprus is an EU front-runner on mobile coverage: it became the first EU country with 100% 5G population coverage in 2022, a milestone the European Commission highlights in its Digital Decade best-practice pages. Fixed connectivity has long been near-universal, and the government’s National Broadband Plan 2021–2025 keeps pushing very-high-capacity networks nationwide.
On digital government, the Digital Citizen mobile app issues legally valid digital documents for use inside the Republic (e.g. civil registry certificates), and services are integrated via gov.cy. In comparative terms, Cyprus sits in the upper tier globally on the UN’s 2024 e-government index (EGDI rank 38/193), reflecting steady service expansion from earlier years.
The market side is smaller in absolute terms but growing briskly: analyst estimates put 2025 e-commerce GMV at about US$1.07 billion with double-digit growth expected through 2030. Together with 5G ubiquity and continued gigabit build-out, these indicators place Cyprus among the Mediterranean leaders on mobile coverage and a regional fast-mover on digitising public services.
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Estonia’s digital policy framework is structured around the Estonian Digital Agenda 2030, which explicitly groups priorities into digital state, connectivity, and cybersecurity. In international benchmarking, the UN E-Government Survey 2024 ranks Estonia 2nd globally, reflecting high scores across online services, telecom infrastructure, and human capital.
On AI governance, Estonia’s main national reference point is the Data and Artificial Intelligence White Paper 2024–2030, which frames AI development alongside data governance and public-sector modernisation. The AI legal framework aligns with EU-level requirements, notably GDPR and the EU AI Act, while Estonia’s practical approach emphasises public-sector use cases and capacity development through short-cycle implementation planning.
For cybersecurity, Estonia’s current national framework is the Cybersecurity Strategy 2024–2030, which targets resilience of digital services in a deteriorating security environment and rapid technological change. In parallel, data protection is governed by the GDPR and the Estonian Personal Data Protection Act, and supervised by the Data Protection Inspectorate. Estonia also operationalises transparency through tools like RIA’s Data Tracker, which lets people see how their personal data is used across public systems.
What is a ‘data embassy’?
Estonia’s Data Embassy is essentially an ‘off-site backup’ for the digital state. Instead of keeping all critical copies of government data and systems only inside Estonia, the country arranged to store and run selected systems in a high-security data centre abroad, so key public services can be restored quickly if a major incident, such as a cyberattack, natural disaster, or large-scale outage, disrupts infrastructure at home. The best-known setup is with Luxembourg, based on a bilateral agreement signed in June 2017 and later ratified by Estonia’s parliament, which provides the legal and practical rules for this cross-border continuity arrangement.in 2018. The agreement defines ‘premises’ as dedicated data-centre space for hosting Estonian systems, and frames the setup as a legal and operational basis for cross-border continuity rather than routine outsourcing. In policy terms, the Data Embassy is notable because it treats digital public infrastructure as critical state capacity, raising practical questions about governance: (what is hosted, who can access it, how it is audited, and how it complements cybersecurity and cloud strategy), while also illustrating how small states can pursue resilience through trusted international partnerships.
Delivery of digital public services is built on interoperable infrastructure and a legally robust e-ID. The X-tee data exchange layer, run by Estonia’s State Information System Authority, RIA, is the core mechanism for secure data sharing across institutions. Estonia’s digital ID ecosystem supports digital signatures that are legally equivalent to handwritten signatures, which underpins remote transactions for both residents and e-residents. Estonia has also used internet voting with binding results since 2005, making elections a long-running test case for secure digital public services.
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On connectivity, cloud, and digital infrastructure, Estonia’s Broadband Plan 2030 is the implementation plan for nationwide high-speed networks. It includes measures to address market failure areas and to ensure continuous 5G coverage along key corridors. Public-sector cloud delivery is anchored by Riigipilv (Government Cloud) and the State IT Centre (RIT), which states it manages the government’s private cloud and brokers public cloud services from major international providers. Resilience concerns also extend to international links, as illustrated by repeated incidents involving the Finland–Estonia undersea cable and subsequent repairs/investigations.
In the digital economy and e-commerce, consumer behaviour data points to substantial uptake: Estonia’s central bank reported that online stores accounted for 24% of everyday purchases in 2024, above the euro-area average in the same survey. This demand-side trend aligns with Estonia’s broader ‘digital state + connectivity’ policy approach, where identity, payments, and service access are treated as mutually reinforcing parts of the digital ecosystem.
Estonia’s permanent mission to the UN:
Estonia’s Permanent Mission to the UN Office and other international organisations in Geneva represents Estonia in Geneva-based multilateral diplomacy, including work related to human rights and the Human Rights Council, humanitarian affairs, disarmament, and international economic organisations (e.g. WTO-related issues). The Mission is headed by Ambassador Riia Salsa-Audiffren, who presented credentials as Permanent Representative in August 2023, and it coordinates Estonia’s positions and statements across relevant UN and international bodies in Geneva.
Austria ranks near the regional frontier on several practical digital enablers. It operates a dense interconnection hub in Vienna via the VIX internet exchange, which anchors low-latency peering for ISPs, CDNs and clouds across Central Europe. National policy targets symmetrical gigabit networks by 2030 under the Broadband Austria 2030 strategy, and regulators continued to expand 5G capacity with a 2024 auction of 3.6 GHz and 26 GHz spectrum.
On cloud and data infrastructure, Austria is among a small set of the EU countries with an in-country hyperscale cloud region: Microsoft Azure ‘Austria East’ launched in August 2025 with three availability zones around Vienna, complementing Vienna’s long-standing colocation campuses. That strengthens options for low-latency workloads and data-residency needs.
Public-sector digitisation is also comparatively advanced. The EU’s Digital Decade country assessment notes Austria’s progress on connectivity and enterprise cloud uptake, while ID Austria provides single-sign-on to hundreds of services and surpassed 4.1 million users in 2025, a high penetration for a country of ~9 million. Together, these indicators, interconnection density, an in-country hyperscale region, and high digital-ID adoption, place Austria among the stronger performers in its region, even as it continues to push gigabit coverage deeper into rural areas.
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