Countries

Internet governance in Portugal involves the development and implementation of policies, standards, and practices that regulate the internet infrastructure, digital services, and online activities within the country. This process relies on a multistakeholder approach that includes government bodies, private sector entities, civil society organisations, and academic institutions, all working towards the common goal of ensuring a secure, inclusive, and innovative digital environment.

A key institution in this realm is the National Regulatory Authority (ANACOM). ANACOM is responsible for overseeing electronic communications and postal services in Portugal. It ensures compliance with both national and European Union regulations, promotes competition, and protects consumer rights. ANACOM’s functions include spectrum management, monitoring the quality of service provided by telecom operators, initiating cybersecurity measures, and fostering innovation within the telecommunications sector.

The Ministry of Economy and Digital Transition is also pivotal in shaping and implementing digital policies in Portugal. This ministry spearheads several initiatives aimed at promoting digital transformation across various sectors.

At the global connectivity level, Portugal serves as a critical submarine cable nexus. Roughly 25 % of the world’s submarine fibre-optic cables pass through its exclusive economic zone, making it the only European country directly connected to all continents. Leading cables such as EllaLink provide direct, low-latency links between Sines and Fortaleza, Brazil, and are complemented by Google’s Equiano and the expansive 2Africa system. Innovative SMART cable initiatives, including the Atlantic CAM and pilots like EllaLink GeoLab, integrate ocean sensing with telecommunications infrastructure, enhancing Portugal’s role in marine science and environmental monitoring.

Portugal ranks highly on the Democratic Economy and Society Index (DESI), particularly in connectivity and public services, though it continues to seek improvements in basic digital skills, SME digital adoption, cloud, AI, and data analytics uptake. National initiatives such as INCoDe 2030 and the AI Portugal 2030 strategy are closing skill gaps and advancing the country’s AI and digital literacy capacities.

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France has established itself as a leader in digital infrastructure and connectivity, with one of the most advanced fibre-optic broadband networks globally. Through its Plan France Très Haut Débit, France has achieved more than 90% fibre coverage, among the highest in Europe, with strong performance in 5G deployment, covering over 88% of the population. The country also boasts robust data centre capacity and leads in submarine cable connections in Europe, making it a critical hub for digital traffic. Its cloud infrastructure is expanding rapidly, supported by public-private investments targeting sovereignty and sustainability.

In data protection, France is among the most influential countries, with the CNIL being one of Europe’s most active data protection authorities. France enforces GDPR rigorously and has introduced pioneering approaches linking privacy with environmental impacts, algorithmic transparency, and cybersecurity. Its cybersecurity strategy is comprehensive, covering critical infrastructure protection, incident response, industrial IoT, and defence, while ANSSI is widely regarded as a model national agency. France is also highly engaged in EU-wide digital policy coordination under frameworks like the Digital Services Act and NIS2.

France is positioning itself as an AI leader through massive investments and long-term strategies. It ranks among the top countries in AI infrastructure, with significant spending on supercomputers and cloud resources for AI research and deployment. Its national AI strategies emphasise ethics, open innovation, and industrial competitiveness, supporting both civilian and defence applications. France consistently ranks high in global digital readiness indicators, particularly in connectivity, cybersecurity, digital government services, and digital R&D capacity, making it one of the strongest digital performers globally.

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The Netherlands boasts a robust digital infrastructure characterised by reliable internet connectivity and extensive mobile device penetration. The government actively supports digital advancements, advocating for the growth of e-commerce and spearheading digital transformation strategies. Investments are targeted at cutting-edge fields such as quantum computing, AI, and life sciences, reflecting a broad commitment to technological innovation.

The Netherlands has been a pioneer in enshrining net neutrality into law. In June 2011, it became the first European country to legislate that Internet Service Providers (ISPs) must treat all internet traffic equally, prohibiting the blocking or throttling of specific services or applications. This legislation was a response to ISPs’ attempts to charge extra fees for services like VoIP and messaging apps. The Dutch law also explicitly banned practices like zero-rating, where certain services are exempted from data caps, to ensure a level playing field for all online services. Although the EU’s Open Internet Regulation came into effect in 2016, the Netherlands has maintained its stricter provisions, with the Authority for Consumers and Markets (ACM) actively enforcing these rules to uphold an open and non-discriminatory internet.

Internet governance debate in the Netherlands is managed through a collaborative approach involving multiple stakeholders, including government bodies, private sector companies, and non-profit organisations. This approach is coordinated under the Netherlands Internet Governance Forum (NL IGF), which was established in 2011. The NL IGF is a consortium that includes the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Climate, SIDN (the .nl domain registry), and ECP | Platform for the Information Society. This forum aims to enhance the visibility of internet governance issues within the Netherlands and elevate them on both national and political agendas.

The NL IGF focuses on a wide array of Internet-related themes, such as cybercrime, privacy, accessibility, human rights, and the implications of emerging technologies like the Internet of Things and cloud computing. It fosters an open, multistakeholder dialogue on these issues, aiming to develop balanced and widely supported internet policies. This setup reflects the global Internet Governance Forum’s (IGF) model, which operates under the auspices of the UN.

Dutch internet governance also involves engaging with international bodies and contributing to global discussions on internet governance through participation in events like the annual Internet Governance Forum (IGF).

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The country benefits from near-universal internet access, a highly developed fibre-optic network, and one of the earliest and most extensive 5G deployments in Europe. The Ultra-High-Speed Broadband Strategy aims to provide 1 Gbps coverage nationwide, including in rural areas, while POST Luxembourg leads the deployment of AI-powered software-defined access networks. The country hosts multiple Tier III and IV data centres and operates MeluXina, a national high-performance computing facility, which supports research, AI training, and simulations.

Luxembourg’s government places strong emphasis on digital public services, with its electronic governance strategy targeting full digitalisation of administrative procedures. The ‘once-only’ principle, interoperability between government systems, and inclusion measures are core pillars of its approach, managed by the Ministry for Digitalisation and the CTIE. As of 2024, over 90 percent of public services are available online. In terms of regulation, Luxembourg adheres to the EU framework on digital services and markets, while also shaping national strategies for emerging technologies, including AI, quantum computing, and secure data governance.

The country’s cybersecurity architecture is guided by the National Cybersecurity Strategy IV, which focuses on strengthening infrastructure resilience, building digital trust, and supporting the secure digital economy. Key players such as GOVCERT, CIRCL, and MILCERT coordinate responses to cyber threats across sectors. Luxembourg also engages in international cyber exercises and collaborates with EU, NATO, and Benelux partners. The private sector is involved through platforms like SECURITYMADEIN.LU, and research institutions participate in threat intelligence sharing.

Data protection is overseen by the CNPD, which enforces the GDPR and national data protection law. Luxembourg is known for pioneering GDPR certification mechanisms, such as the GDPR-CARPA framework, and has been involved in notable enforcement actions, including the upheld fine against Amazon. The CNPD provides guidance on AI regulation and coordinates with EU-level bodies to monitor emerging risks.

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Over the past two decades, Lithuania has rapidly advanced its digital infrastructure and services. In 2003, the country launched the ‘Electronic Government Gateway’ (www.epaslaugos.lt), providing citizens with access to over 700 e-government services by the end of 2004. This platform has been continually updated to meet evolving technological capabilities and user needs. The nation ranks 10th in the European Union’s Digital Economy and Society Index (DES 2023I) for the effectiveness of digital services for citizens and 6th for businesses. Notably, Lithuania is the 2nd best in the EU for using pre-filled forms with digital services. In the European Commission’s E-Government Benchmark for 2023, Lithuania came in 7th place. 

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Slovenia has been actively working on digitalising its society and economy, focusing on harnessing the social and economic potential of ICT and the internet for digital growth. Slovenia has also been committed to building a digital economy and society, strongly emphasising internet governance and access, e-government, and digital skills development. The country has been among the top in Europe in terms of internet connectivity and penetration. Slovenia’s approach to internet governance focuses on ensuring a secure, inclusive, and efficient digital environment. This effort is characterized by the integration of various stakeholders, the implementation of comprehensive strategies, and active participation in international forums.

Key Regulatory Bodies

1. Agency for Communication Networks and Services (AKOS): AKOS is the primary regulator for telecommunications, ensuring compliance with both national and EU regulations. It promotes competition, safeguards consumer rights, and oversees the development of internet infrastructure.
2. Information Commissioner: This office is responsible for data protection and access to public information, ensuring adherence to the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and national privacy laws.
3. Ministry of Digital Transformation: This ministry leads the formulation and implementation of digital policies. The Ministry monitors and analyses the state of digital transformation and the information society at the national level. It is responsible for the areas of the information society, electronic communications, digital inclusion, digital competencies, the data economy, management of information and communication systems, and the provision of electronic public administration services. 

Slovenian stakeholders are active participants in various internet governance forums and initiatives at the regional and global levels. Slovenian stakeholders participate in the annual South Eastern European Dialogue on Internet Governance (SEE+) and Dialogue on Internet Governance (EuroDIG) events, which bring together stakeholders from the region to discuss digital policy-related issues and challenges. At the global level, Slovenia is a member of the Internet Governance Forum (IGF). Slovenia also has a national internet governance initiative called SloIGF.

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Over the past two decades, Denmark has prioritised digital transformation, resulting in a highly connected society. The country’s digital infrastructure boasts 98% 5G coverage and 95% of households connected to Very High-Capacity Networks (VHCNs), placing it at the forefront of the EU’s Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) rankings internet governance in Denmark focuses on digitalization, cybersecurity, and e-government initiatives to ensure a secure and efficient digital landscape. Denmark emphasises collaborative efforts domestically and internationally to defend against cyber threats and espionage, protect critical ICT infrastructure, and enhance digital skills among citizens and businesses. The country promotes responsible, democratic, and safe technology development through initiatives like Tech for Democracy and Tech Diplomacy.

Denmark was the first country to appoint an ambassador for tech diplomacy back in 2017. The first tech ambassador set up an office in Silicon Valley in 2017, to be close to the big players in the tech sector, eager to start a more focused and intensive dialogue with companies like Google and Facebook.

Denmark’s stakeholders are active participants in various internet governance forums and initiatives at the regional and global levels. Danish stakeholders also participate in the European Dialogue on Internet Governance (EuroDIG) events, which bring together stakeholders from the region to discuss digital policy-related issues and challenges. At the global level, Denmark is a member of the Internet Governance Forum (IGF). Denmark also has a national internet governance initiative called Danish IGF, which was established as a bottom-up, multistakeholder platform for discussing internet-related public policy issues within the country.

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Belgium remains a top-tier performer in the EU, ranking 6th overall in the 2024 DESI thanks to strong connectivity and digital adoption. Its fixed broadband (≥100 Mbps) uptake is 67%, significantly above the EU’s 55% average, and very high-capacity network (VHCN) coverage reaches 78% of households.

In terms of internet speed, Belgium performs strongly: median fixed broadband speed was 107.01 Mbps at the start of 2025, while median mobile speed stood at 88.69 Mbps. This places Belgium among the top ~20–30 countries globally for both fixed and mobile speeds. Additionally, mobile penetration exceeds 125%, and 90% of the population uses mobile broadband, reflecting high digital access.

Belgium also excels in digital skills and e‑government: 93% of individuals are internet users, and 54% possess at least basic digital skills. Moreover, 88% of citizens utilise online public services, well above the EU average of 74%. These factors, combined with robust connectivity and strong infrastructure, firmly position Belgium among the most advanced digital economies in Europe.

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Estonia has emerged as a global leader in digital innovation, transforming its public services and economy through comprehensive e-governance initiatives. The nation’s digital identity system, established in 2002, enables citizens to access a wide array of services online, including tax filings, healthcare records, and even voting in elections. This commitment to digital accessibility has resulted in 99% of public services being available online, significantly enhancing efficiency and citizen engagement.

In 2014, Estonia introduced the e-Residency program, allowing individuals worldwide to establish and manage businesses within the European Union remotely. This initiative has attracted entrepreneurs globally, fostering economic growth and positioning Estonia as a hub for digital business.

The country’s proactive approach to cybersecurity includes advanced technologies and international collaborations, ensuring the resilience and security of its digital infrastructure. Estonia’s legal framework supports this digital ecosystem, with the Personal Data Protection Act aligning closely with the EU’s GDPR to safeguard personal data.

In the realm of artificial intelligence, Estonia has implemented a comprehensive AI strategy, emphasising collaboration among government entities, academia, and the private sector. Initiatives like Bürokratt aim to enhance public services through AI-driven virtual assistants, reflecting the country’s commitment to integrating cutting-edge technologies into governance.

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Spain’s digital profile is anchored by very high fibre coverage and strong interconnection. The FTTH Council Europe ranks Spain among Europe’s leaders for FTTH/B penetration (≈78.9% as of Sept 2023), which underpins fixed speeds and 5G backhaul. Major IXPs such as DE-CIX Madrid and ESpanix provide dense domestic and international peering, while new and legacy subsea cables, MAREA and Grace Hopper on the Atlantic side and 2Africa landing in Barcelona, give diverse, high-capacity routes into both the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins.

On cloud supply, Spain is one of the few EU markets with all three hyperscalers operating local regions: AWS Europe (Spain) in Aragón, Google Cloud Madrid, and Azure Spain Central near Madrid. Such a footprint is being reinforced by large-scale capex commitments (e.g. AWS’s €15.7 bn plan in Aragón and Microsoft’s €6.69 bn for additional data-centre capacity), supporting low-latency workloads and data-residency needs for public and private sectors alike.

Governance combines mature EU-aligned rules with national institutions. Spain’s National Cybersecurity Strategy (2019) and National Cybersecurity Plan (2022), reinforced with further measures in May 2025, define roles for CCN-CERT (public sector) and INCIBE-CERT (citizens/companies). Data protection is enforced by the AEPD under GDPR and LOPDGDD (2018), and Spain has also created AESIA, a dedicated AI supervisory agency, alongside an updated AI Strategy (2024).

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