Nepal is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mainly situated in the Himalayas, but also includes parts of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, bordering the Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the north, and India in the south, east, and west, while it is narrowly separated from Bangladesh by the Siliguri Corridor, and from Bhutan by the Indian state of Sikkim. Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the world’s ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth.
Countries
Russia
Internet governance in Russia is characterised by a strong emphasis on state control, driven by geopolitical, security, and sovereignty concerns. Russia advocates for a model of internet governance that emphasises state control over digital activities within its borders. This model is rooted in the belief that controlling the internet is essential for national security and political stability. This concept includes regulating online speech, monitoring internet use, and managing data flows to protect against external and internal threats.
Russia has developed a framework to create an autonomous internet, often referred to as the ‘RuNet.’ This system is designed to operate independently from the global internet in case of external disruptions or cyberattacks. Legislation passed in 2019 (Sovereign Internet Law) requires internet service providers to route traffic through exchange points controlled by Roskomnadzor, Russia’s federal service for supervising communications, information technology, and mass media. This system includes a ‘kill switch’ that can isolate the Russian internet from the global network if needed.
The Russian Data Localisation Law (Federal Law No. 242-FZ) mandate that data about Russian citizens be stored on servers within the country. This applies to all companies that collect, store or process personal data, including foreign entities operating in Russia. This is part of a broader strategy to ensure that the government retains control over domestic data and can protect it from foreign interference. Compliance is monitored by Roskomnadzor, which can block non-compliant websites and services.
While Russia collaborates with other countries on various aspects of internet governance, such as promoting a UN-led international governance system, it remains cautious about deep technological cooperation. Concerns about national security risks have limited the scope of collaboration to less sensitive areas, with a focus on self-sufficiency and reducing dependence on foreign technology.
Russian stakeholders are active participants in various internet governance forums and initiatives at the regional and global levels. Russian stakeholders also participate in the European Dialogue on Internet Governance (EuroDIG) and Central Asian IGF events, which bring together stakeholders from the region to discuss digital policy-related issues and challenges. At the global level, Russia is a member of the Internet Governance Forum (IGF). Russia also hosts a national internet governance initiative known as the Russian Internet Governance Forum (RIGF).
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Liechtenstein
Liechtenstein is a German-speaking microstate located in the Alps between Austria and Switzerland. Liechtenstein is a semi-constitutional monarchy headed by the Prince of Liechtenstein. It is Europe’s fourth-smallest country, with an area of just over 160 square kilometres (62 square miles) and a population of 38,749 (in 2019). Divided into 11 municipalities, its capital is Vaduz, and its largest municipality is Schaan.
Maldives
Maldives is an archipelagic state located in South Asia, situated in the Indian Ocean. It lies southwest of Sri Lanka and India, about 750 kilometres (470 miles; 400 nautical miles) from the Asian continent’s mainland. The chain of 26 atolls stretches across the Equator from Ihavandhippolhu Atoll in the north to Addu Atoll in the south.
Tuvalu
Tuvalu is an island country in the Polynesian subregion of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean. Its islands are situated about midway between Hawaii and Australia. They lie east-northeast of the Santa Cruz Islands (which belong to the Solomon Islands), northeast of Vanuatu, southeast of Nauru, south of Kiribati, west of Tokelau, northwest of Samoa and Wallis and Futuna, and north of Fiji. Tuvalu is composed of three reef islands and six atolls. They are spread out between the latitude of 5° and 10° south and between the longitude of 176° and 180°. They lie west of the International Date Line.
Myanmar
Myanmar’s digital connectivity has been significantly enhanced through the development of several submarine cable systems, which link the country to international networks and bolster internet capacity and reliability.
One of the earliest connections was through the SEA-ME-WE 3 (SMW3) cable, which landed at the Pyapon Cable Landing Station managed by Myanmar Posts and Telecommunications (MPT). This cable system has been instrumental in providing foundational connectivity for Myanmar. The SEA-ME-WE 5 (SMW5) cable further strengthened Myanmar’s digital infrastructure by landing at the Ngwe Saung Cable Landing Station, also operated by MPT. This system enhanced connectivity between Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Western Europe.
Additionally, the Asia-Africa-Europe 1 (AAE-1) cable system, with a landing point at Ngwe Saung, has been pivotal in connecting Myanmar to a broader international network. China Unicom serves as the landing party for AAE-1 in Myanmar. The Singapore-Myanmar (SIGMAR) cable system directly links Singapore and Myanmar, landing in Tuas, Singapore, and in Thanlyin, southeast of Yangon. Developed by Campana Group in partnership with Telin Singapore, SIGMAR enhances regional connectivity.
Currently under development, the Myanmar/Malaysia-India-Singapore Transit (MIST) cable system aims to connect Singapore, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and India (Mumbai and Chennai). With a design capacity exceeding 216 Tbps, MIST is expected to further strengthen Myanmar’s international connectivity upon its completion.
These submarine cable systems are crucial for Myanmar’s digital infrastructure, providing high-capacity and reliable international bandwidth essential for internet services, data exchange, and economic activities. The development and expansion of such infrastructure are vital for supporting Myanmar’s digital economy initiatives and improving access to global information networks.
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Nauru
The rise in internet penetration has facilitated the growth of e-commerce in Nauru. Local businesses are increasingly adopting online platforms to reach a broader audience, and international retailers are beginning to explore the potential of the Nauruan market. To support this digital transition, Nauru has implemented several key regulations, including the Electronic Transactions Act, which provides a legal framework for electronic signatures and the authentication of digital documents, and the Consumer Protection Act, which ensures that online consumers’ rights are safeguarded.
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Montenegro
Montenegro is actively advancing its digital landscape through comprehensive strategies and initiatives that encompass infrastructure development, cybersecurity, AI, digital governance, and education. The country has made significant progress in enhancing its digital infrastructure. As of 2025, approximately 89.8% of the population had internet access, with mobile broadband penetration reaching 224% relative to the population. The deployment of 5G services is underway, with obligations for operators to provide 5G coverage in every municipality by the end of 2024 and to cover at least 50% of the total population by the end of 2026.
In terms of cybersecurity, Montenegro adopted the National Cybersecurity Strategy 2022–2026, aiming to enhance legislative, operational, and technical capacities to effectively respond to cyber threats. A key component of this strategy is the establishment of a Cybersecurity Agency to oversee national cybersecurity efforts and integrate the existing Computer Incident Response Team (CIRT).
Montenegro is also taking steps to integrate AI into its public services and economy. In May 2025, the country presented its first AI Readiness Assessment Report, highlighting opportunities in sectors like tourism, energy, and environmental protection. The report emphasises the need for investments in skills development, infrastructure, and regulatory frameworks to effectively implement AI solutions.
The Digital Transformation Strategy 2022–2026 outlines Montenegro’s commitment to enhancing digital governance. This includes improving e-government services, expanding broadband access, and strengthening digital skills across the population. Efforts are underway to align with EU standards, particularly in areas like data protection and digital infrastructure.
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Malawi
Malawi is a lower-middle-income, landlocked country in southeastern Africa with approximately 21 million people and a GDP (PPP) of $38 billion (2023). Internet penetration remains modest—18 % of individuals and 18 % of households have internet access, with about 56 % owning mobile phones and 3 % owning computers. Mobile data is relatively expensive (~$1.70 for 300 MB/month), representing about 5 % of GNI per capita, which limits wider digital adoption.
Government-led efforts to boost the digital economy include the Digital Malawi Project (World Bank–funded), aiming to expand digital-ID coverage to 2 million more citizens, establish ten tech hubs, and provide cheaper internet to over 83,000 students across 81 universities via MAREN. These initiatives support core areas like education, entrepreneurship, and connectivity, reinforcing Malawi’s goal to harness ICT for inclusive development under the Malawi 2063 vision.
The fintech sector—sparked by services like TNM Mpamba, Airtel Money, and the newly licensed PayChangu (2024 PSP license)—is rapidly expanding digital payments for individuals and merchants. Combined with growing investment in fiber infrastructure (~4.3 million people reached since 2014) and regulatory frameworks like the Electronic Transactions Act, Malawi’s digital profile reflects cautious but steady progress toward a more connected, digitally enabled society
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Marshall Islands
The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is actively advancing its digital landscape through strategic initiatives aimed at enhancing connectivity, promoting digital services, and fostering innovation. Central to these efforts is the Digital Republic of the Marshall Islands Project, a US$30 million initiative supported by the World Bank. This project focuses on expanding internet access across the nation’s 24 inhabited atolls and islands, promoting private sector investment in climate-resilient digital infrastructure, and establishing the foundations for digital government services and the digital economy.
The country has significantly enhanced its digital connectivity through the integration of submarine cable systems, which are vital for its communication infrastructure. The cornerstone of this advancement is the HANTRU-1 submarine cable system, which connects the Reagan Test Site in Kwajalein Atoll to Guam. Funded with approximately $100 million, HANTRU-1 was established to provide high-speed bandwidth, replacing the previously sole reliance on satellite communications. In 2010, extensions to this system were completed, linking Majuro and other locations, thereby integrating the RMI into the global fibre-optic network.
Looking forward, the RMI is poised to benefit from the proposed Central Pacific Cable project, a 15,900-kilometre subsea cable intended to connect American Samoa with Guam and extend to multiple Pacific island nations, including the Marshall Islands.