Internet governance in Russia is characterised by a strong emphasis on state control, driven by geopolitical, security, and sovereignty concerns. Russia advocates for a model of internet governance that emphasises state control over digital activities within its borders. This model is rooted in the belief that controlling the internet is essential for national security and political stability. This concept includes regulating online speech, monitoring internet use, and managing data flows to protect against external and internal threats.
Russia has developed a framework to create an autonomous internet, often referred to as the ‘RuNet.’ This system is designed to operate independently from the global internet in case of external disruptions or cyberattacks. Legislation passed in 2019 (Sovereign Internet Law) requires internet service providers to route traffic through exchange points controlled by Roskomnadzor, Russia’s federal service for supervising communications, information technology, and mass media. This system includes a ‘kill switch’ that can isolate the Russian internet from the global network if needed.
The Russian Data Localisation Law (Federal Law No. 242-FZ) mandate that data about Russian citizens be stored on servers within the country. This applies to all companies that collect, store or process personal data, including foreign entities operating in Russia. This is part of a broader strategy to ensure that the government retains control over domestic data and can protect it from foreign interference. Compliance is monitored by Roskomnadzor, which can block non-compliant websites and services.
While Russia collaborates with other countries on various aspects of internet governance, such as promoting a UN-led international governance system, it remains cautious about deep technological cooperation. Concerns about national security risks have limited the scope of collaboration to less sensitive areas, with a focus on self-sufficiency and reducing dependence on foreign technology.
Russian stakeholders are active participants in various internet governance forums and initiatives at the regional and global levels. Russian stakeholders also participate in the European Dialogue on Internet Governance (EuroDIG) and Central Asian IGF events, which bring together stakeholders from the region to discuss digital policy-related issues and challenges. At the global level, Russia is a member of the Internet Governance Forum (IGF). Russia also hosts a national internet governance initiative known as the Russian Internet Governance Forum (RIGF).
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epal’s digital ecosystem has expanded significantly over the past decade, guided by policy frameworks such as the ICT Policy 2015, the Broadband Policy 2014, and the Digital Nepal Framework 2019. The government recently introduced the E-commerce Act 2025, requiring all online sellers to register, and the National AI Policy 2025, establishing ethical and regulatory foundations for artificial intelligence. These initiatives complement existing privacy and cybersecurity laws, including the Electronic Transactions Act 2006 and the Privacy Act 2018. Oversight is led by institutions such as the Nepal Telecommunications Authority, with civil society forums like the Nepal IGF contributing to multistakeholder dialogue.
Digital infrastructure is steadily improving, with growing fibre-optic backbones, the Nepal Internet Exchange reducing reliance on international routing, and major new data centres such as WorldLink’s 3.5 MW Chandragiri facility supporting cloud, AI, and colocation services. Nepal stands out in South Asia for its active regulatory approach to data centres and cloud services, formalised through the Data Centre and Cloud Services Directive 2081. The country is also advancing in digital public services, with platforms like the Nagarik App integrating multiple state functions. Internet penetration is growing, though unevenly across urban and rural areas, and connectivity in mountainous regions remains a challenge.
The country is also positioning itself as an early mover in South Asia with a national AI strategy, seeking to balance innovation with regulation. Despite gaps in infrastructure, skills, and implementation capacity, Nepal’s combination of formal policies, regulatory initiatives, and growing infrastructure provides a foundation for further digital development.
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Maldives is an archipelagic state located in South Asia, situated in the Indian Ocean. It lies southwest of Sri Lanka and India, about 750 kilometres (470 miles; 400 nautical miles) from the Asian continent’s mainland. The chain of 26 atolls stretches across the Equator from Ihavandhippolhu Atoll in the north to Addu Atoll in the south.
Montenegro is actively advancing its digital landscape through comprehensive strategies and initiatives that encompass infrastructure development, cybersecurity, AI, digital governance, and education. The country has made significant progress in enhancing its digital infrastructure. As of 2025, approximately 89.8% of the population had internet access, with mobile broadband penetration reaching 224% relative to the population. The deployment of 5G services is underway, with obligations for operators to provide 5G coverage in every municipality by the end of 2024 and to cover at least 50% of the total population by the end of 2026.
In terms of cybersecurity, Montenegro adopted the National Cybersecurity Strategy 2022–2026, aiming to enhance legislative, operational, and technical capacities to effectively respond to cyber threats. A key component of this strategy is the establishment of a Cybersecurity Agency to oversee national cybersecurity efforts and integrate the existing Computer Incident Response Team (CIRT).
Montenegro is also taking steps to integrate AI into its public services and economy. In May 2025, the country presented its first AI Readiness Assessment Report, highlighting opportunities in sectors like tourism, energy, and environmental protection. The report emphasises the need for investments in skills development, infrastructure, and regulatory frameworks to effectively implement AI solutions.
The Digital Transformation Strategy 2022–2026 outlines Montenegro’s commitment to enhancing digital governance. This includes improving e-government services, expanding broadband access, and strengthening digital skills across the population. Efforts are underway to align with EU standards, particularly in areas like data protection and digital infrastructure.
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Malawi is a lower-middle-income, landlocked country in southeastern Africa with approximately 21 million people and a GDP (PPP) of $38 billion (2023). Internet penetration remains modest—18 % of individuals and 18 % of households have internet access, with about 56 % owning mobile phones and 3 % owning computers. Mobile data is relatively expensive (~$1.70 for 300 MB/month), representing about 5 % of GNI per capita, which limits wider digital adoption.
Government-led efforts to boost the digital economy include the Digital Malawi Project (World Bank–funded), aiming to expand digital-ID coverage to 2 million more citizens, establish ten tech hubs, and provide cheaper internet to over 83,000 students across 81 universities via MAREN. These initiatives support core areas like education, entrepreneurship, and connectivity, reinforcing Malawi’s goal to harness ICT for inclusive development under the Malawi 2063 vision.
The fintech sector—sparked by services like TNM Mpamba, Airtel Money, and the newly licensed PayChangu (2024 PSP license)—is rapidly expanding digital payments for individuals and merchants. Combined with growing investment in fiber infrastructure (~4.3 million people reached since 2014) and regulatory frameworks like the Electronic Transactions Act, Malawi’s digital profile reflects cautious but steady progress toward a more connected, digitally enabled society
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The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is actively advancing its digital landscape through strategic initiatives aimed at enhancing connectivity, promoting digital services, and fostering innovation. Central to these efforts is the Digital Republic of the Marshall Islands Project, a US$30 million initiative supported by the World Bank. This project focuses on expanding internet access across the nation’s 24 inhabited atolls and islands, promoting private sector investment in climate-resilient digital infrastructure, and establishing the foundations for digital government services and the digital economy.
The country has significantly enhanced its digital connectivity through the integration of submarine cable systems, which are vital for its communication infrastructure. The cornerstone of this advancement is the HANTRU-1 submarine cable system, which connects the Reagan Test Site in Kwajalein Atoll to Guam. Funded with approximately $100 million, HANTRU-1 was established to provide high-speed bandwidth, replacing the previously sole reliance on satellite communications. In 2010, extensions to this system were completed, linking Majuro and other locations, thereby integrating the RMI into the global fibre-optic network.
Looking forward, the RMI is poised to benefit from the proposed Central Pacific Cable project, a 15,900-kilometre subsea cable intended to connect American Samoa with Guam and extend to multiple Pacific island nations, including the Marshall Islands.
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Liechtenstein stands out as one of the most digitally advanced microstates in Europe, with near-universal broadband access and world-class infrastructure. By 2023, the country achieved 100% fibre-to-the-building (FTTB) coverage through its national utility, Liechtensteinische Kraftwerke (LKW), earning the European Broadband Award. Internet penetration exceeds 97%, with average fixed speeds around 189 Mbps, and mobile broadband subscriptions surpass 135% of the population.
Digitally, the government adopted a comprehensive Digital Agenda in 2019, later expanded into a multi-sector Digital Roadmap through 2030. It emphasises digital administration, education, cybersecurity, health, and sustainability, coordinated by the Office for Digital Innovation. Liechtenstein also implemented a full open-access fibre model, decommissioned copper infrastructure, and maintains a progressive e-government ecosystem guided by principles like digital-by-design and once-only. Initiatives like the Digital Check support SMEs in digital transformation, and the opt-out model for electronic health records ensures high adoption.
In AI governance and data protection, Liechtenstein aligns closely with European standards. It signed the Council of Europe’s AI Convention in 2025 and actively participates in EU-level AI Act discussions. The Data Protection Authority enforces GDPR and national legislation with sector-specific AI guidance, especially on chatbots. Public administration uses AI responsibly, supported by government-issued guidelines.
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Myanmar’s digital connectivity has been significantly enhanced through the development of several submarine cable systems, which link the country to international networks and bolster internet capacity and reliability.
One of the earliest connections was through the SEA-ME-WE 3 (SMW3) cable, which landed at the Pyapon Cable Landing Station managed by Myanmar Posts and Telecommunications (MPT). This cable system has been instrumental in providing foundational connectivity for Myanmar. The SEA-ME-WE 5 (SMW5) cable further strengthened Myanmar’s digital infrastructure by landing at the Ngwe Saung Cable Landing Station, also operated by MPT. This system enhanced connectivity between Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Western Europe.
Additionally, the Asia-Africa-Europe 1 (AAE-1) cable system, with a landing point at Ngwe Saung, has been pivotal in connecting Myanmar to a broader international network. China Unicom serves as the landing party for AAE-1 in Myanmar. The Singapore-Myanmar (SIGMAR) cable system directly links Singapore and Myanmar, landing in Tuas, Singapore, and in Thanlyin, southeast of Yangon. Developed by Campana Group in partnership with Telin Singapore, SIGMAR enhances regional connectivity.
Currently under development, the Myanmar/Malaysia-India-Singapore Transit (MIST) cable system aims to connect Singapore, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and India (Mumbai and Chennai). With a design capacity exceeding 216 Tbps, MIST is expected to further strengthen Myanmar’s international connectivity upon its completion.
These submarine cable systems are crucial for Myanmar’s digital infrastructure, providing high-capacity and reliable international bandwidth essential for internet services, data exchange, and economic activities. The development and expansion of such infrastructure are vital for supporting Myanmar’s digital economy initiatives and improving access to global information networks.
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The rise in internet penetration has facilitated the growth of e-commerce in Nauru. Local businesses are increasingly adopting online platforms to reach a broader audience, and international retailers are beginning to explore the potential of the Nauruan market. To support this digital transition, Nauru has implemented several key regulations, including the Electronic Transactions Act, which provides a legal framework for electronic signatures and the authentication of digital documents, and the Consumer Protection Act, which ensures that online consumers’ rights are safeguarded.
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Tuvalu’s connectivity entered a new phase in 2025: the country moved from a satellite-only past to subsea fibre with the Vaka Cable, built by SubCom, developed by Tuvalu Telecommunications Corporation (TTC) with Google as a partner, linking Funafuti to Google’s Bulikula system. In parallel, the Department of ICT confirmed nationwide Starlink availability in January 2025, giving the islands a high-throughput satellite backstop. For a Pacific microstate, this fibre + LEO mix is a regional bright spot for latency and resilience.
On-island access is compact and state-led. TTC, established by statute, runs LTE and public Wi-Fi that front-end most cloud services used by residents and businesses, while the National ICT Policy (approved 5 October 2023) sets priorities for connectivity, digital government, and cybersecurity rather than sector-specific codes. Governance of the country domain .tv also anchors Tuvalu’s digital footprint globally: the ccTLD is managed by Tuvalu’s communications ministry with GoDaddy Registry as technical operator.
Looking ahead, Tuvalu is consulting on a National Broadband Plan (draft 2024) to extend high-quality access beyond Funafuti, aligning projects and spectrum/fees updates under the ICT portfolio. Together with the cable and LEO upgrades, these policies give Tuvalu one of the more forward-leaning connectivity stacks among the smallest Pacific economies, small-scale, but with a clear plan and dual international paths.
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