On the governance side, Bhutan has implemented one of the world’s first nationwide self-sovereign digital ID systems through the National Digital Identity (NDI) Act of 2023, giving citizens cryptographically verifiable credentials and control over their data. The act sits on a rapidly maturing data-governance foundation aimed at integrating secure digital interactions across services and sectors.
Bhutan is also positioning itself in green computing and digital finance. It is using hydropower for ‘green’ cryptocurrency mining, aiming to support sustainable digital asset creation. The central bank is exploring a digital ngultrum CBDC pilot, as part of broader digital-economy strategies under the 13th Five-Year Plan, and national tech planning includes advanced AI and digital finance elements.
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In terms of infrastructure, Sudan’s main comparative advantage in the region is its Red Sea gateway at Port Sudan, which serves as a key anchor for international connectivity through submarine cable landings. Port Sudan is a landing point for EASSy (a major East Africa system) and is linked to the FALCON/FLAG system; early reporting described Port Sudan as East Africa’s first landing station for FALCON. During the war, the humanitarian Emergency Telecommunications Cluster activated a dedicated 1Gbps undersea fibre connection in Port Sudan (21 August 2024) to improve reliable connectivity for operations.
On digital indicators where Sudan has stood out, multiple reports based on Cable.co.uk’s Worldwide Mobile Data Pricing 2021 placed Sudan among the world’s cheapest markets for mobile data (5th globally; cheapest in Africa at about US$0.27/GB on average), a notable affordability outlier on the continent (note: this is a 2021 datapoint, not a current ranking). Sudan also has core internet infrastructure, such as the Sudan Internet Exchange Point (SIXP) (listed as established in 2011) and a national incident-response capability via Sudan CERT (established 2010), even though comprehensive, standalone data protection law coverage is generally described as absent.
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Singapore serves as a pivotal hub in the global network of submarine communications cables, facilitating extensive international connectivity. The nation currently hosts 26 subsea cables, with landing sites strategically located at Changi North, Tanah Merah, and Tuas. These cables are essential for transmitting over 99% of Singapore’s international telecommunications traffic, underscoring their critical role in the country’s economic stability and national security. To further enhance its digital infrastructure, Singapore plans to double its submarine cable landing facilities by 2033.
This expansion aims to accommodate the growing demand for data services and reinforce Singapore’s position as a leading connectivity hub in the Asia-Pacific region. The Info-communications Media Development Authority (IMDA) oversees the deployment of submarine cable systems, requiring interested parties to obtain a Facilities-Based Operations (FBO) license and adhere to established guidelines.
Recent developments include collaborations between Singaporean and Vietnamese firms to develop new undersea fiber-optic cables, supporting the burgeoning data center industry in Southeast Asia. Additionally, projects like the Australia-Asia PowerLink aim to transmit renewable energy from Australia to Singapore via a 4,300km submarine cable, reflecting the multifaceted applications of submarine cable technology.
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Within the Western Balkans region, Albania’s connectivity and infrastructure indicators place it among the more advanced: internet usage among adults is around 83 %, and the market is showing growing adoption of fibre, mobile broadband and cloud-based public services.
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Seychelles transitioned from satellite dependence to high-capacity global connectivity through submarine cables, including SEAS (since 2012) and connections via PEACE and 2Africa, with domestic fiber networks linking main islands and national data centers established by Airtel and Cable & Wireless. Mobile network penetration exceeds 160%, with over 91% of connections supporting broadband (3G–5G), and recent agreements with Hytera aim to modernize emergency and mission-critical communication systems.
Seychelles ranks among Africa’s top performers in e‑Government Development and invests heavily in digital public services, from e‑immigration and biometric digital IDs to AI-driven analytics in public administration. Government efforts include the SeyID system, digital certification programs through the Seychelles Qualifications Authority, and the Strategic Innovation Hub partnership with Presight to support sectoral transformation.
The country actively promotes a digital economy through initiatives such as the Seychelles Fintech prijects and digital skills bootcamps, attracting investment in AI, cloud computing, and cybersecurity roles, with tech sector growth projected at over 17% by 2024. Innovation is further supported by incubators and government–private partnerships, including Accenture and WISeKey, fostering AI, blockchain, and e‑ID technologies.
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Internet governance in Afghanistan has evolved in the context of a challenging socio-political environment. The country has faced numerous obstacles in developing its digital infrastructure, largely due to prolonged conflict, instability, and limited resources. However, there have been efforts to establish and regulate internet governance, focusing on expanding access, ensuring security, and promoting digital literacy. Internet penetration in Afghanistan remains relatively low compared to global standards, although there has been significant growth in recent years. The expansion of mobile networks has played a crucial role in increasing internet access, especially in urban areas.
In digital governance, Afghanistan ranks modestly rather than leading: it has a Global Cybersecurity Index preparedness score of 5.20 (on an unspecified scale) and an e‑government readiness score of 58.39. While not among the highest globally or regionally, the presence of foundational institutional structures indicates room for growth in cyber policy and digital systems.
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The digital economy in Argentina has been steadily growing, driven by a tech-savvy population and a robust entrepreneurial spirit. Argentina boasts a vibrant startup scene, especially in Buenos Aires, which is often considered the Silicon Valley of South America. The country has produced several unicorns, startups valued at over $1 billion, including MercadoLibre, an e-commerce giant, and Globant, an IT and software development company.
Argentina boasts a robust fibre-optic backbone, anchored by ARSAT’s Red Federal de Fibra Óptica (ReFeFO) spanning over 34,500 km and expanding toward its 52,000 km goal to connect hundreds of localities nationwide. This backbone supports infrastructure upgrades, shifting from 10 Gbps to 100 Gbps speeds via DWDM, and enables private providers and cooperatives to build on its network, enhancing reach across provincial areas.
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Tajikistan demonstrates notably high mobile connectivity, with approximately 10.8 million cellular connections, equating to 101% of its population as of early 2025—an indicator of widespread access to mobile devices and networks in the region. According to the 2023 Network Readiness Index, the country scores particularly well for ‘mobile broadband traffic within the country’, ranking 5th globally. Additionally, Tajikistan holds a high adult literacy rate, ranking 10th, which supports its broader digital engagement.
However, the country lags in internet speed and affordability. As of early 2025, mobile internet speed ranks 139th out of 143 countries, with fixed broadband in similarly low positions—reflecting limited performance compared to global standards. Only about 57% of the population uses the internet, leaving a significant offline share (43%) at the beginning of 2025. Challenges in fixed broadband penetration and high costs persist, particularly in rural and underserved areas
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Saint Kitts and Nevis has built a robust digital foundation by enacting progressive laws for internet governance, enhancing its submarine cable connectivity, and investing in government-wide networks that bolster internet penetration. It has introduced secure digital identity systems, electronic transactions laws, and cybersecurity training programs that protect online services, while AI initiatives in areas like judicial proceedings and traffic management signal an openness to innovation. Regulatory frameworks such as the Virtual Asset Act support cryptocurrency adoption, and the government actively fosters collaborations at regional and international levels, positioning Saint Kitts and Nevis as a forward-thinking leader in digital transformation.
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Armenian internet governance focuses on creating an open, secure, and accessible internet through a regulatory framework that promotes universal access, cybersecurity, and freedom of expression. The Ministry of High-Tech Industry oversees digital policies, working to expand broadband access and reduce the digital divide, particularly in rural areas. Armenia’s national cybersecurity strategies address online threats while fostering innovation in the IT sector. The government also promotes e-government initiatives as part of its digital transformation strategy, enhancing public services and transparency. Multistakeholder involvement, including government, private sector, and civil society, ensures balanced policy-making. International collaborations with organisations like ICANN and ITU help align Armenia with global internet governance standards, ensuring the internet remains a tool for development and public welfare.
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