The 80th session of the UN General Assembly (UNGA 80) – Day 2

Overall report from Day 2 at UNGA 80

The report is generated by DiploAI based on audiovisual recordings; the result is presented as-is and may include potential errors. Comments and corrections can be sent to reporting@diplomacy.edu.

Critical pillars: The debate centred on the relevance and reform of the United Nations on its 80th anniversary, the urgent need for peace in ongoing conflicts (Ukraine, Gaza), the challenges of climate change, sustainable development, and the governance of new technologies like AI.

Key areas of prevailing agreement (not shared by all countries): The indispensable role of the UN and multilateralism, the need for UN reform (especially the Security Council), the urgency of addressing climate change and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, and the necessity of upholding international law and the UN Charter.

Areas of divergence: While there was broad agreement on the need for peace, the approaches and attributions of blame for conflicts, particularly in Ukraine and the Middle East, varied significantly. There were also differing perspectives on the balance between national sovereignty and international intervention, and on the specific mechanisms for UN reform.

---

10 key points

1. The UN at a crossroads: It was widely acknowledged that the UN, on its 80th anniversary, is at a critical juncture, facing a crisis of credibility and effectiveness in a world of escalating conflicts and complex global challenges.
2. Urgent calls for peace in Ukraine and Gaza: The wars in Ukraine and Gaza were central to the debate, with numerous speakers calling for an immediate ceasefire in Gaza, the release of hostages, and a just and lasting peace in Ukraine based on international law.
3. The imperative of UN reform: A recurring theme was the urgent need to reform the United Nations, particularly the Security Council, to make it more representative, effective, and reflective of 21st-century geopolitical realities.
4. Climate change as an existential threat: The triple planetary crisis of climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss was highlighted as an existential threat, especially for small island developing states, with calls for greater climate finance and a faster transition to renewable energy.
5. Sustainable Development Goals in peril: Concern was expressed over the slow progress towards the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, with calls for a reformed international financial architecture to address the debt burdens of developing countries.
6. The double-edged sword of AI: The transformative potential of AI was recognised, but so were the risks, leading to calls for global rules and responsible governance to ensure AI is used for peace and development.
7. Upholding international law and the UN charter: Speakers repeatedly emphasised the importance of respecting the principles of the UN Charter, including state sovereignty and territorial integrity, as the foundation of the international rules-based order.
8. Africa’s demand for greater representation: There was a strong and unified call from African leaders for the continent to have permanent representation on the UN Security Council, framing it as a matter of justice and legitimacy.
9. The challenge of democratic backsliding and political violence: Several leaders voiced deep concern over the erosion of democratic values, the rise of authoritarianism, and the alarming increase in political violence and intolerance globally.
10. The power of multilateralism and cooperation: Despite the numerous challenges, there was a reaffirmation of faith in multilateralism and international cooperation as the only viable path to addressing global problems and building a more peaceful and prosperous world.

---

Summary report

Context

The General Debate of the 80th session of the United Nations General Assembly convened at a moment of profound global turbulence. Marking the 80th anniversary of the organisation’s founding, the debate was set against a backdrop of escalating armed conflicts, a worsening climate crisis, and a growing crisis of confidence in the multilateral system. High-level representatives from across the globe gathered to reflect on the UN’s legacy, assess its present challenges, and chart a course for its future, guided by the theme “Better together: 80 years and more for peace, development, and human rights.”

Why it matters

This session was particularly significant due to the convergence of multiple global crises that are testing the limits of the post-World War II international order. The debate served as a crucial barometer of the international community’s ability to act collectively in the face of geopolitical fragmentation and resurgent nationalism. The urgency of the discussions was underscored by the ongoing wars in Ukraine and Gaza, which have not only caused immense human suffering but have also paralysed the Security Council and exposed deep divisions among major powers. The session’s focus on UN reform, particularly of the Security Council, signalled a widespread recognition that the organisation must adapt to remain relevant and effective.

What was discussed

The debate covered a wide spectrum of pressing global issues. A central theme was the state of international peace and security, with the conflicts in Ukraine and Gaza dominating many speeches. A few statements condemned Russia’s aggression against Ukraine and called for a just peace that respects Ukraine’s sovereignty and territorial integrity. The humanitarian catastrophe in Gaza elicited widespread calls for an immediate ceasefire, the release of all hostages, and a renewed push for a two-state solution.

The need for a reformed and revitalised UN was another major topic of discussion. Many speakers, particularly from the Global South, argued that the UN’s current structures, especially the Security Council, are outdated and unrepresentative of the world today. The “Ezulwini Consensus,” calling for two permanent seats for Africa, was strongly reiterated.

The existential threat of climate change was a key concern, with leaders from small island developing states delivering stark warnings about their nations’ survival. There were urgent calls for developed countries to honour their climate finance commitments and for a global transition to renewable energy. Linked to this was the broader challenge of sustainable development, with many leaders highlighting the need to reform the international financial architecture to alleviate the debt burdens of developing countries and accelerate progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals.

The rapid advancement of artificial intelligence and other emerging technologies also featured prominently. While acknowledging the potential benefits, speakers cautioned against the risks of misuse, from autonomous weapons to digital divides, and called for the development of global governance frameworks to ensure these technologies serve humanity.

Unique and non-expected insights

A notable insight from the debate was the increasingly assertive and unified voice of the Global South, particularly on issues of UN reform and international financial justice. The framing of Security Council reform not as a request but as a “demand for equity” by African leaders marked a significant rhetorical shift. The discussion on technology also revealed a growing awareness of the need to proactively govern emerging technologies, with proposals for a “neutral sovereign artificial intelligence zone” and a focus on AI’s role in development. The debate also highlighted the interconnectedness of global challenges, with speakers frequently linking climate change to security, debt to development, and technology to human rights.

Follow-up and next steps

The debate laid the groundwork for several key follow-up actions. The Secretary-General’s “UN 80” reform initiative will be a central focus in the coming year, with a “Pact for the Future” intended to be a key outcome. The upcoming climate conferences, COP29 and COP30, were identified as critical milestones for raising climate ambition and delivering on finance pledges. The discussions also set the stage for continued negotiations on UN Security Council reform and for the development of international norms and regulations for artificial intelligence. The calls for a renewed peace process in the Middle East and continued support for Ukraine will also shape the diplomatic agenda in the months ahead. The session concluded with a clear, albeit challenging, mandate: to translate the calls for unity and action into concrete results that can restore faith in the multilateral system and deliver a more peaceful, just, and sustainable world for all.

---

Key points by speakers

Spain

• Indispensable nature of the UN: Argued that in a time of extreme complexity and uncertainty, the UN is not only useful but indispensable and irreplaceable.
• Condemnation of the war in Ukraine: Denounced Russia’s aggression, stating that peace is not possible without justice and pledged Spain’s continued support.
• Call to end the “massacre” in Gaza: While condemning Hamas, they made an impassioned plea for an end to the “abhorrent acts” of the Israeli government, demanding a ceasefire and the upholding of international humanitarian law.
• Two-state solution: Stressed that the international community must achieve a viable two-state solution and that Spain’s recognition of Palestine contributes to this goal.
• Commitment to human rights, gender equality, and the environment: Highlighted Spain’s foreign policy priorities, including its work on the Human Rights Council and its aspiration to be a beacon for gender equality.

Ukraine

• The primacy of weapons and alliances: Stated that in the 21st century, weapons and strong alliances, not international law, decide who survives.
• Failure of international institutions: Criticised the weakness of the UN and the global system, pointing to the lack of effective action in global conflicts.
• The evolving nature of warfare: Highlighted the rise of cheap drones and AI as creating the “most destructive arms race in human history.”
• Urgent call to stop Russia: Argued that stopping Putin’s war now is cheaper and safer than dealing with the consequences of an expanded conflict.
• Offer of security cooperation: Proposed a new security architecture, offering to share Ukraine’s war-tested weapons and defence production capabilities with partners.

Monaco

• Reaffirmation of multilateralism: Emphasised the UN’s historic role and reaffirmed Monaco’s commitment to multilateral values.
• Call for peaceful conflict resolution: Condemned the aggression against Ukraine and violence in the Middle East, calling for de-escalation in Gaza and a two-state solution.
• Urgency of environmental action: Highlighted the need for collective action to protect oceans and combat the climate crisis, announcing Monaco will double its climate financing by 2028.
• Addressing setbacks in human rights: Expressed alarm at setbacks in human rights, particularly for women, and called for a collective commitment to combat violence against them.
• Need for UN reform: Stated that the UN’s 80th anniversary is an opportunity to breathe new life into multilateralism by reforming its operations.

Iran

• The golden moral maxim: Centred his address on the principle “that which you would not approve for yourself, do not approve for others.”
• Condemnation of Israel and the US: Accused the “Zionist regime” and the United States of genocide in Gaza and violating international law.
• Defence of Iran’s actions: Portrayed Iran’s response to alleged aggression as a “twelve-day defence” that fortified national unity.
• Rejection of nuclear weapons: Categorically denied that Iran has ever sought or will ever seek to build a nuclear bomb, based on a religious edict.
• Vision for a strong region: Envisioned a “powerful Iran alongside powerful neighbours,” free from weapons of mass destruction.

Panama

• Strengthening multilateralism: Called for a comprehensive reform of the UN to make it more effective and representative.
• Stewardship of the Panama Canal: Reaffirmed its commitment to the canal’s neutrality and efficient operation as a global public good.
• Addressing migration and drug trafficking: Reported on the reduction of migrant flows through the Darien region but stressed the root causes remain, while drug trafficking is increasing.
• Maritime security as a priority: Stressed the importance of maritime security and proposed strengthening regional cooperation to combat piracy, trafficking, and illegal fishing.
• Commitment to peace and democracy: Reaffirmed Panama’s respect for freedom and democracy and its role as a defender of international law.

Czechia

• The dual legacy of the UN: Acknowledged the UN’s achievements while noting that the world has not become more secure, particularly due to Russia.
• Condemnation of Russian aggression: Denounced Russia’s invasion of Ukraine as a violation of the UN Charter that threatens the rules-based system.
• The global consequences of the war in Ukraine: Argued that a Russian victory would legitimise brute force and that security is globally interlinked.
• Call for UN Security Council reform: Advocated for a comprehensive reform of the Security Council, arguing it is failing its purpose.
• The necessity of thriving multilateralism: Concluded that global challenges require greater cooperation and that multilateralism must thrive for future generations.

Switzerland

• A new era of upheaval: Characterised the current moment as one of extreme political and economic upheaval requiring redoubled efforts.
• The link between domestic strength and international solidarity: Argued that strong international organisations need strong members, defined by domestic stability, freedom, and prosperity.
• The imperative of UN reform: Stated that the UN must critically assess its ability to fulfil its founding role and supported the UN 80 reform program.
• A call to action, not complacency: Invoked the words of Auschwitz survivor Primo Levi (“It happened, therefore it could happen again”) as a call to action.
• Commitment to the 2030 agenda: Reaffirmed the “Pact for the Future” and the 2030 Agenda as robust commitments that must be implemented without delay.

Latvia

• Defence of the rules-based international order: Expressed deep concern over attempts to destroy the rules-based order, stating a new “might makes right” order is emerging.
• Unwavering support for Ukraine: Pledged that as a new Security Council member, Latvia will stand with Ukraine and work for a just and lasting peace.
• Urgent action needed in Gaza: Called for an immediate ceasefire in Gaza, the release of hostages, and safe humanitarian access, affirming the need for a two-state solution.
• Addressing emerging security threats: Highlighted the growing threat of hybrid warfare, cyberattacks, and the misuse of AI.
• The need for a reformed and relevant UN: Supported the UN 80 initiative, arguing that the UN must evolve to remain effective.

Kenya

• Relevance of the UN at 80: Questioned the UN’s relevance, warning that institutions drift into irrelevance when they do not adapt and reform.
• Africa’s demand for Security Council seats: Argued that Africa’s exclusion from permanent representation is “unacceptable, unfair, and grossly unjust,” demanding at least two permanent seats.
• Lessons from the Haiti mission: Shared experiences from leading the security mission in Haiti, highlighting its successes despite being underfunded and urging sustained international effort.
• Climate action as a transformation opportunity: Positioned Africa as a source of solutions to the climate crisis and called for the reform of international finance to unlock climate funding.
• Building Africa’s financial independence: Endorsed the establishment of African multilateral financial institutions to accelerate the continent’s development.

Paraguay

• Condemnation of political violence: Denounced recent political assassinations, stating that political violence is “immoral, intolerable, and profoundly harmful.”
• Critique of authoritarianism in Latin America: Expressed deep concern over the “alarming” situation in Venezuela and the persecution of opponents in Nicaragua.
• Principled foreign policy: Stated that Paraguay’s foreign policy is based on shared values like the rule of law, not just economic interests.
• Call for Taiwan’s inclusion in the UN: Argued that Taiwan “deserves a place in this forum,” calling its exclusion an “affront.”
• The Paraguayan model of development: Presented Paraguay as a “giant that is reemerging,” citing its strong economic growth and social programs.

Estonia

• Defence of the multilateral world order: Stated that the world must choose between a world of barbaric force and one of peaceful, rules-based order.
• Condemnation of Russia’s war of aggression: Denounced Russia’s war against Ukraine as one of the gravest breaches of the UN Charter.
• Call for accountability and pressure on Russia: Argued that the only path to peace is to increase international pressure on Russia and hold it accountable.
• Humanitarian crisis in Gaza: Expressed devastation at the loss of innocent lives in Gaza, stating the situation has “crossed all red lines” and calling for a ceasefire.
• Support for UN reform and digital innovation: Endorsed ambitious, system-wide UN reform and highlighted Estonia’s own “artificial intelligence leap” as a model.

Argentina

• Critique of the UN’s direction: Argued the UN has become a supranational model of government run by bureaucrats seeking to impose a specific way of life.
• The trap of present comfort vs. future prosperity: Diagnosed a global problem where leaders prioritize short-term comfort at the expense of long-term growth.
• Argentina as a lesson: Presented Argentina as a country that has learned the “hard way” and is now on the “thorny but right path” of reform.
• Alignment with Donald Trump: Expressed strong alignment with President Donald Trump, praising his policies on immigration and international trade.
• Four principles for UN reform: Proposed a core mandate focused on peace, international subsidiarity, institutional efficiency, and normative simplification.

Serbia

• The UN as a compass for the future: Asserted that the UN Charter remains the only framework capable of holding the world together.
• Territorial integrity is not selective: Argued that the principle cannot be applied selectively, stating its violation anywhere becomes justification for conflict everywhere.
• Kosovo and Metohija as an inseparable part of Serbia: Described the “dramatic circumstances” of Serbs in Kosovo and reaffirmed that it is an inseparable part of the country.
• The Balkans as a space for shared responsibility: Stated that the Balkans must be a space for regional ownership, with Serbia as a guarantor of the Dayton Peace Agreement.
• Offer of Belgrade as a hub for dialogue and UN agencies: Positioned Serbia as a “bridge” between East and West and offered Belgrade as a host for UN bodies.

Syria

• A story of struggle and victory: Framed Syria’s recent history as a struggle against a “repressive regime,” culminating in a military victory that “prioritized tolerance.”
• Commitment to justice and national dialogue: Pledged to bring those accountable for bloodshed to justice and announced the formation of a National Commission for Transitional Justice.
• Restoration of international relations and economic rebuilding: Reported that Syria has restored its international relations and is now rebuilding with a new state, laws, and institutions.
• Condemnation of Israeli strikes: Accused Israel of continued strikes and attacks against Syria, which threaten new crises in the region.
• Solidarity with the people of Gaza: Expressed firm solidarity with the people of Gaza, stating that Syrians wish upon no one the suffering they endured.

Croatia

• The UN’s decisive role: Recalled the UN’s role in Croatia’s own struggle for independence as a lesson in how to end a complex war.
• Call for an end to the “carnage” in Gaza: Described the situation as “worse than a mere war, it’s a carnage” and urgently called for it to end.
• Upholding the Dayton Accords in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Called for full respect of the Dayton Paris Peace Accord, emphasizing the rights of the three constituent peoples.
• Addressing the legacy of war: Highlighted the ongoing search for 1,744 missing people from its Homeland War.
• The imperative of UN reform in the face of new technologies: Stated that emerging technologies are reshaping security and that reforming the UN is an “existential necessity.”

Cyprus

• A world at a precipice: Described the international order as standing at the “brink of a precipice” with devastating wars and instability.
• Cyprus as an enabler of security and stability: Positioned Cyprus as a “safe harbour in turbulent waters” and a responsible actor in the Eastern Mediterranean.
• The hypocrisy of occupiers: Called out Turkish President Erdoğan for preaching peace while Turkey continues its 51-year occupation of Cyprus.
• Call for reunification of Cyprus: Made a direct call to President Erdoğan to end the occupation and join negotiations to reunify Cyprus.
• The danger of appeasing aggressors: Argued that appeasing aggressors never works and that turning a blind eye to violations of territorial integrity creates space for the next aggressor.

Finland

• Foreign policy as values, interests, and power: Framed foreign policy around these three pillars, noting that influence for smaller countries comes from smart diplomacy.
• The end of the post-Cold War order: Stated that the post-Cold War order is over and that all member states have agency in shaping the new one.
• The tension between multilateralism and multipolarity: Observed a growing tension between a rules-based multilateral order and a transactional, multipolar approach.
• The need for Security Council reform: Argued for a reformed Security Council where underrepresented regions have a stronger voice, proposing new permanent seats.
• Getting the UN back into peace mediation: Stressed that the UN is needed as a mediator and that its absence from this role is a reason for the current number of wars.

Sierra Leone

• Reimagining multilateralism: Called for a reimagining of multilateralism to ensure peace, dignity, and equality are realities in people’s lives.
• The moral failure in Gaza: Described the Security Council’s inaction on Gaza as a “heart-wrenching” failure where a “preventable genocide was not prevented.”
• Africa’s demand for Security Council seats: Framed the call for at least two permanent seats for Africa not as a request, but as a “demand for equity.”
• The success of the UN in Sierra Leone: Held up the UN’s role in ending Sierra Leone’s civil war as proof that multilateral solidarity works.
• The need for a braver United Nations: Concluded that the world does not need a louder UN, but a “braver United Nations.”

Dominican Republic

• The multidimensional crisis in Haiti: Stated the crisis in Haiti represents a “serious threat to peace and security” for the region and urged a more robust UN force.
• Defending national sovereignty and migration policy: Made clear that the Dominican Republic will continue to protect its borders and enforce its migration regime.
• A call for a fairer international financial architecture: Argued that the main obstacle to development goals is a financial architecture that does not reflect the realities of developing countries.
• The need for a transformed and relevant UN: Supported the UN 80 reform initiative, stating that if the UN fails to transform, it risks irrelevance.
• The existential threat of the triple planetary crisis: Highlighted the devastating impact of the climate crisis on small island developing states.

Sri Lanka

• The global catastrophe of poverty and inequality: Proposed that the assembly accept inequality and poverty as a “global catastrophe” and act accordingly.
• The fight against corruption as a moral imperative: Described corruption as an “epidemic” and a “decisive threat to democracy.”
• The futility of war: Condemned war as a tragedy and called for an immediate ceasefire in Gaza and the implementation of a two-state solution.
• The danger of religious extremism and racism: Characterised extremist and racist ideas as being as “deadly as epidemics.”
• A vision for a thriving nation: Outlined a vision for Sri Lanka based on a non-corrupt administration, poverty eradication, and digitalisation.

Guatemala

• A call for true peace at the close of a cycle: Used the Mayan concept of a “katun” to frame the UN’s 80th anniversary as an opportunity to repair and achieve justice.
• The return to a democratic path: Described Guatemala as returning to a democratic path after a long period of corruption, while still facing harassment from anti-democratic actors.
• The fight against impunity: Denounced the persecution of indigenous leaders, journalists, and judges who oppose corruption.
• Addressing migration and climate change: Highlighted Guatemala’s efforts to provide dignified treatment to migrants while tackling the root causes of its own emigration.
• The urgent need for UN reform: Stated the UN has not fulfilled its mandate and called for urgent reform of the Security Council.

Comoros

• The Palestinian tragedy as genocide: Described the situation of the Palestinian people as a “tragedy” and the response in Gaza as a “genocide.”
• Support for a two-state solution: Reaffirmed tireless support for a two-state solution, arguing a recognized Palestinian state is the best guarantee of peace.
• Africa’s rightful place in the Security Council: Stated that Africa must finally obtain its legitimate and rightful place within the Security Council.
• The unresolved question of Mayotte: Denounced the “French occupation” of the Comorian island of Mayotte.
• A call for climate justice and financial reform: Called for equitable access to climate financing and a reform of the international financial architecture.

Namibia

• Namibia’s journey as a UN success story: Framed Namibia’s journey to independence as one of the UN’s most successful stories.
• A woman leader’s message of empowerment: As the fifth president and a woman, delivered a message of encouragement to every girl and woman.
• Redressing the historical injustice to Africa: Stated that the call to redress the historical injustice to Africa and ensure equitable representation on the Security Council can no longer be delayed.
• Condemnation of unilateral sanctions: Called for an end to the “illegal” economic embargo on Cuba and sanctions on Zimbabwe.
• The moral failure in Gaza: Stated that the failure to address the crisis in Gaza could become the “moral failure that defines this era.”

Guyana

• The UN at a crossroads at 80: Stated that the UN is at a crossroads, facing raging conflicts and a looming shadow of genocide and annexation.
• The genocide in Palestine: Condemned Israel’s actions in Gaza as “not warfare, but mass extermination” and a “systematic slaughter.”
• Venezuela’s aggression against Guyana: Denounced Venezuela’s persistent threats and aggression in violation of international law.
• Climate action and biodiversity leadership: Highlighted Guyana’s Low Carbon Development Strategy and its role as a seller of carbon credits.
• Balancing energy production and environmental stewardship: Positioned Guyana as an emerging energy producer, carefully balancing its green footprint with production.

Kiribati

• The need for a reformed and effective UN: Welcomed reforms that improve efficiency and protect mandates vital to vulnerable nations.
• Advocacy for a nuclear-free ocean: Highlighted Kiribati’s active support for the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.
• Resilience in the face of climate change: Pushed back against narratives that its islands are sinking, stating it has strategies to adapt and thrive.
• The legal permanence of maritime zones: Welcomed the International Court of Justice’s decision providing legal certainty for maritime zones.
• Commitment to multilateral ocean governance: Emphasised its commitment to strong multilateral ocean governance to combat illegal fishing and protect marine life.

Senegal

• A world teetering on the brink: Observed that the world is “teetering again,” caught in the same currents that led to two world wars.
• The tragedy in Gaza: Described Gaza as “hell for thousands of souls,” where all lines have been crossed.
• The need for predictable funding for African peace operations: Called for predictable funding for African peace support operations to tackle terrorism.
• Reforming global governance: Argued for a reform of global political, economic, and financial governance systems to give Africa fairer representation.
• The challenge of political will: Concluded that the real obstacle to solving global problems is a lack of political will.

Slovakia

• The enduring mission of peace: Recalled that peace has been the UN’s defining mission, a mission that is now under threat.
• The failure of the Security Council: Stated that the Security Council is “failing” in its mission to maintain peace.
• Support for a two-state solution and recognition of Palestine: Noted proudly that Slovakia had recognised the right of the Palestinian people to their own state more than three decades ago.
• The need for a reformed and relevant UN: Argued that the UN’s credibility has been reduced and that it needs reform, especially of the Security Council.
• Investing in youth and a decent life for all children: Concluded with a call to ensure every child has the right to live in peace and have a decent life.

Marshall Islands

• A unique legacy of nuclear testing: Recalled its history as a UN trusteeship where the US conducted 67 nuclear tests, for which its communities still seek justice.
• A call for a UN apology: Noted that the UN should be capable of delivering an “apology” for what took place in its name.
• The sharpest edge of climate change: Defined climate change as the region’s number one security threat and sounded the alarm for the Pacific Islands.
• The misrepresentation of UN Resolution 2758 on Taiwan: Asserted that the resolution has been “falsely portrayed” and does not provide a basis for invasion.
• Support for a moratorium on deep-seabed mining: Joined other nations in supporting a moratorium until the impacts are better understood.

Congo

• The founding principles of the UN under threat: Reaffirmed the ideals of solidarity and multilateralism while noting they are threatened by a resurgence of armed conflicts.
• Africa deserves permanent representation on the Security Council: Stated forcefully that Africa deserves permanent representation, “not as the beneficiary of a favour, but as a legitimate partner.”
• The primacy of law over the force of weapons: Argued that the language of weapons has won out and called for a reaffirmation of the primacy of law.
• The danger of a new arms race: Expressed alarm at the “dangerous slide” of a new arms race, with record military spending.
• The need for smarter, more effective multilateralism: Called for a multilateralism that is more representative of the 21st century and delivers tangible results.

Australia

• Peace as a collective responsibility: Emphasised that creating the conditions for peace is a collective responsibility for all nations.
• Investing in diplomacy, defence, and development: Outlined Australia’s strategy of investing in its capabilities and relationships to strengthen regional security.
• Condemnation of Iranian-orchestrated attacks in Australia: Confirmed that the Iranian regime orchestrated attacks on a synagogue and Jewish restaurant in Australia.
• Recognition of the State of Palestine: Announced that Australia had recognised the State of Palestine, linking the decision to the UN Charter’s mission.
• Clean energy as a path beyond false choices: Championed clean renewable energy as a way to move beyond the false choice between economic growth and environmental responsibility.

Central African Republic

• The intertwined destiny of humanity: Stated that the UN’s anniversary is a reminder that the destinies of all peoples are intertwined.
• A world confronted by unprecedented threats: Described a global landscape of unprecedented threats, including wars, rivalries, and climate crises.
• From a place of violence to an example of peace: Presented its own journey from conflict to peace as an example of African good practice.
• Africa’s demand for justice and partnership: Argued it is time for the injustices caused to Africa to be repaired, demanding two permanent Security Council seats.
• Three proposals for a more just world: Proposed global initiatives for rebuilding fragile states, protecting critical ecosystems, and a “green corridor” for development.

Madagascar

• The UN as a beacon of unity and peace: Described the UN as a “temple of multilateralism” that has kept the flame of unity and peace burning.
• A call to renew the AGOA program: Made a solemn request for the renewal of the African Growth and Opportunity Act, warning of “disastrous” consequences if it is not.
• A vision of sovereign development: Outlined a vision for Africa to seize its own destiny through industrialisation and agricultural transformation.
• The moral imperative of climate justice: Described Madagascar as a victim of climate change and sounded a call for climate justice from polluting countries.
• A choice for unity over division: Concluded with a call for unity and action, stating that division is not a solution.

Kuwait

• The UN’s success in liberating Kuwait: Recalled the UN’s success in liberating Kuwait as a model of achieving justice and peace.
• The ongoing issue of missing persons: Highlighted the continued tragedy of Kuwaiti missing persons from the 1990 invasion.
• Condemnation of the Israeli aggression against Qatar: Condemned in the strongest terms the “brutal Israeli aggression against Qatar.”
• The unfolding genocide in Gaza: Described the situation as an “unfolding of genocide before our eyes,” resulting from double standards in international law.
• The need for Security Council reform: Stated a firm conviction in the dire need to reform the Security Council to enshrine justice and transparency.

Nigeria

• Nigeria’s demand for a permanent Security Council seat: Stated unequivocally that “Nigeria must have a permanent seat at the UN Security Council.”
• The two-state solution as the most dignified path: Argued that a two-state solution remains the “most dignified path to lasting peace for the people of Palestine.”
• The price of peace is eternal vigilance: Outlined Nigeria’s long struggle with violent extremism, stating that values and ideas deliver the ultimate victory.
• The need for sovereign debt relief and fair benefit from minerals: Called for urgent action on debt relief and a system where host countries benefit from their mineral resources.
• Closing the digital divide: AI must stand for “Africa included”: Advocated for a dedicated initiative to close the digital divide and ensure emerging economies can access new technologies.

Albania

• A journey from isolation to integration: Framed Albania’s journey from dictatorship to a proud European nation as proof that dialogue and partnership can transform societies.
• The need for Kosovo’s UN membership: Argued that the Republic of Kosovo’s seat in the assembly remains “unjustly empty” and called its recognition an “act of justice.”
• Commitment to peace in Ukraine and the Middle East: Stood in full support of Ukraine’s sovereignty and called for the war in Gaza to end.
• Advancing gender equality and youth empowerment: Highlighted Albania’s progress in advancing gender equality and its focus on expanding opportunities for youth.
• Turning the “Pact for the Future” into action: Endorsed the “Pact for the Future” as a guiding framework to revive multilateral cooperation.

Italy

• A world suspended between war and peace: Questioned whether the UN has succeeded in its primary purpose, with 56 ongoing armed conflicts.
• Israel has exceeded the limit in Gaza: Stated that Israel’s large-scale war has “exceeded that limit” by disproportionately involving the Palestinian civilian population.
• The need for pragmatic UN reform: Argued that a profound, pragmatic, and realistic reform of the UN is necessary and urgent.
• A critique of “unsustainable environmentalism”: Criticised “green plans” in the West for leading to deindustrialisation and suffering among the vulnerable.
• A plan for African debt conversion: Announced Italy’s plan to convert the entire debt for the least developed nations into local development projects.

Hungary

• An age of dangers: Characterised the current era as an “age of dangers,” with global security in its worst shape since World War II.
• The Hungarian approach: no war, no migration, no gender: Summarised its approach as advocating for peace talks, closed borders, and a traditional definition of family.
• President Trump as the only hope for peace in Ukraine: Expressed respect for President Donald Trump, stating he is “the only hope to make peace in Ukraine.”
• Defiance of EU migration policy: Stated that Hungary will continue to protect its border from illegal migrants, even if it means paying a €1 million daily penalty.
• A family-based economic strategy: Outlined its strategy of spending 5% of GDP on supporting families, including tax exemptions for mothers.

Costa Rica

• Three significant global challenges: Identified nuclear weapons, the triple planetary crisis, and AI governance as the three most significant global challenges.
• The urgency of nuclear disarmament: Warned that the risk of nuclear conflict is the highest it has been in decades and called for their “complete, verifiable, and irreversible elimination.”
• Humanitarian security as a multidimensional challenge: Argued that humanitarian and refugee crises are vectors of insecurity that fuel organised crime.
• Leadership of small states through action: Positioned small states like Costa Rica as leaders who build bridges and forge consensuses.
• A call for the next Secretary-General to be a woman from Latin America and the Caribbean: Expressed confidence that the next Secretary-General will be a woman from the region.

---

List of speakers

Speaker	Affiliation	Word count
Spain	His Majesty Don Felipe the sixth, King of Spain	2,135
Ukraine	His Excellency Volodymyr Zelenskyy, President of Ukraine	2,048
Kenya	His Excellency, William Samoei Ruto, President of The Republic Of Kenya	1,987
Paraguay	His Excellency, Santiago Pena Palacios, President of the Republic Of Paraguay	1,954
Argentina	His Excellency, Javier Gerardo Milei, President of Argentina Republic	1,897
Serbia	His Excellency, Aleksandar Vučić, President of the Republic Of Serbia	1,876
Iran	His Excellency Masoud Pezeshkian, President of the Islamic Republic Of Iran	1,854
Nigeria	His Excellency, Kashim Shetima, Vice President of the Federal Republic Of Nigeria	1,765
Australia	His Excellency Anthony Albanese, Prime Minister of the Commonwealth Of Australia	1,754
Central African Republic	His Excellency, Faustin Archange Touadera, Head of State of the Central African Republic	1,698
Madagascar	His Excellency, Andry Nirina Rajoelina, President of The Republic Of Madagascar	1,687
Cyprus	His Excellency, Nikos Christodoulides, President of The Republic Of Cyprus	1,654
Sri Lanka	His Excellency Anura Kumara Dissanayake, Head of State and President of the Democratic Socialist Republic Of Sri Lanka	1,643
Guatemala	His Excellency, Cesar Bernardo Arivalo de Leon, President of The Republic Of Guatemala	1,632
Finland	His Excellency Alexander Stubb, President of The Republic Of Finland	1,621
Italy	Her Excellency, Giorgia Meloni, President of the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Italy	1,598
Sierra Leone	His Excellency Julius Maada Wonie Bio, President of The Republic Of Sierra Leone	1,587
Dominican Republic	His Excellency, Luis Rodolfo Abinader Corona, President of the Dominican Republic	1,564
Latvia	His Excellency, Edgars Rinkēvičs, President of The Republic Of Latvia	1,543
Hungary	His Excellency, Péter Szijjártó, Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade of Hungary	1,532
Albania	His Excellency, Bajram Begaj, President of the Republic Of Albania	1,498
Comoros	His Excellency, President Azali Assoumani, President of the Union of the Comoros	1,487
Namibia	Her Excellency, Miss Ndemupelila Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah, President of The Republic Of Namibia	1,476
Panama	His Excellency José Raúl Mulino Quintero, President of the Republic Of Panama	1,465
Costa Rica	His Excellency, Minister of Foreign Affairs and Worship of Costa Rica, Ricardo André Tinoco	1,453
Guyana	His Excellency, Mister Mohamed Irfaan Ali, President of the Cooperative Republic of Guyana	1,432
Croatia	His Excellency, Zuran Milanovic, President of Republic Of Croatia	1,421
Estonia	His Excellency, Alar Karis, President of The Republic Of Estonia	1,398
Congo	His Excellency, Denis Sassou Nguesso, President of The Republic Of The Congo	1,387
Czechia	His Excellency Peter Pawel, President of The Czech Republic	1,354
Switzerland	Her Excellency Karin Maria Keller-Sutter, President of the Swiss Confederation	1,321
Monaco	His Serene Highness, Prince Albert the second, Sovereign Prince of Monaco	1,298
Marshall Islands	Her Excellency Hilda Heine, President of Republic Of The Marshall Islands	1,287
Kiribati	His Excellency, Mister Taneti Maamau, President and Minister for Foreign Affairs and Immigration of The Republic Of Kiribati	1,276
Slovakia	His Excellency, Peter Pellegrini, President of the Slovak Republic	1,254
Senegal	His Excellency, Mister Bassirou Diomaye Diakhar Faye, President of The Republic Of Senegal	1,243
Kuwait	His Highness, Sheikh Sabah Al-Khaled Al-Sabah, Crown Prince of the State Of Kuwait	1,232
Syria	His Excellency, Ahmed al-Sharaa, President of the Syrian Arab Republic	1,198
The President of the General Assembly	Moderator	542

---

(Dis)agreements survey

Agreements

• The centrality and necessity of the United Nations: Nearly every speaker, despite criticisms, reaffirmed their belief in the United Nations as an indispensable organisation and the cornerstone of multilateralism. There was broad agreement that global challenges can only be solved through collective action and a rules-based international order. (Spain, Monaco, Panama, Czechia, Switzerland, Latvia, Kenya, Serbia, Finland, Sierra Leone, and others)
• The urgent need for UN reform, especially the Security Council: A consistent point of agreement across a wide range of speakers was the urgent need for comprehensive reform of the UN, particularly the Security Council. It was widely seen as outdated, unrepresentative, and often paralysed, undermining its legitimacy and effectiveness. (Panama, Czechia, Switzerland, Latvia, Kenya, Finland, Sierra Leone, Congo, Australia, Italy, and others)
• The imperative of a two-state solution for Israel and Palestine: While positions on the conflict varied, there was a strong and recurring call from a diverse group of nations for a two-state solution as the only viable path to a just and lasting peace between Israelis and Palestinians. Many also called for an immediate ceasefire in Gaza and the release of hostages. (Spain, Monaco, Latvia, Kenya, Syria, Croatia, Cyprus, Finland, Sierra Leone, Guyana, Senegal, Slovakia, Kuwait, Italy)
• Condemnation of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine: A significant number of speakers, particularly from Europe and its allies, explicitly condemned Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine as a blatant violation of the UN Charter and international law. There was agreement on the need to support Ukraine’s sovereignty and territorial integrity. (Spain, Monaco, Czechia, Latvia, Cyprus, Finland, Australia, Slovakia, Albania, Italy)
• Climate change as an existential threat: There was widespread agreement that the triple planetary crisis of climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss represents an existential threat to humanity. Speakers, especially from small island developing states, called for urgent action, increased climate finance, and adherence to the Paris Agreement. (Spain, Monaco, Panama, Latvia, Kenya, Switzerland, Marshall Islands, Comoros, Costa Rica, Madagascar)

Disagreements

• Attribution of blame and approach to the war in Ukraine: While many Western nations unequivocally condemned Russia as the aggressor, other speakers were more circumspect. Ukraine argued for more weapons and pressure to force Russia to stop, while Hungary called for immediate peace talks and praised Donald Trump’s efforts, criticising the EU’s strategy of sanctions and support for Ukraine.
• The nature of the conflict in Gaza and Israel’s actions: While there was agreement on the need for a ceasefire and a two-state solution, the language used to describe the conflict varied sharply. Spain called Israel’s actions a “massacre,” Iran and others a “genocide.” In contrast, nations like the US (via others’ references) and Czechia emphasised Israel’s right to self-defence, while still calling for adherence to international humanitarian law. Paraguay stressed the need to distinguish between Israel’s democratically elected government and the terrorist group Hamas.
• Sovereignty vs. international intervention (migration): The issue of migration revealed tensions between national sovereignty and international norms. The Dominican Republic defended its right to enforce its migration regime and protect its borders from the crisis in Haiti. Hungary vehemently defended its hard-line anti-migration policies, criticising the EU’s “pro-migration policy” and willingness to pay fines rather than accept migrants. In contrast, Spain and others spoke of managing migration as a “vector of mutual development” and upholding the human rights of migrants.
• Economic models and environmental policy: Italy’s critique of “unsustainable environmentalism” and “green plans” that lead to deindustrialisation stood in contrast to the urgent calls from many other nations for an accelerated green transition. Similarly, Argentina’s strong advocacy for free markets and critique of state expansion contrasted with the calls from many developing nations for greater state-led development and reform of a financial system they see as inherently biased against them.

---

Follow-up actions

• UN Reform (UN 80 Initiative): The Secretary-General’s “UN 80” reform initiative was widely endorsed, with speakers committing to engage in the process to make the organisation more effective, efficient, and representative. This includes the urgent and long-overdue reform of the Security Council. (Switzerland, Kenya, Czechia, Latvia, and many others)
• Climate Action (COP30): Numerous speakers called for increased ambition and concrete action ahead of the COP30 climate conference in Brazil, including the submission of stronger nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and the delivery of promised climate finance. (Spain, Latvia, Marshall Islands, Australia)
• Peace Efforts in Ukraine: Several speakers committed to continuing diplomatic efforts to achieve a just and lasting peace in Ukraine, with a focus on upholding the principles of the UN Charter. (Spain, Czechia, Albania, Italy)
• Middle East Peace Process: There were widespread calls to relaunch a credible political process to achieve a two-state solution for Israel and Palestine, with several nations offering to play a role in this process and in the reconstruction of Gaza. (Spain, Monaco, Cyprus, Finland, Italy)
• Haiti Security Mission: Kenya, as the lead nation of the MSS mission in Haiti, urged the Security Council to ensure sustained and coordinated international attention and a careful and orderly transition as the mission’s mandate comes to an end. Panama and the Dominican Republic called for the mission to be transformed into a more robust, UN-backed force.
• Implementation of the “Pact for the Future”: Switzerland, Albania, and others called for the immediate implementation of the “Pact for the Future” and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
• International Conference on the Protection of Civilians: Costa Rica announced it will host the second international conference on the political declaration on strengthening the protection of civilians from the use of explosive weapons in populated areas.
• AI Governance Dialogue: Costa Rica and Spain’s leadership in establishing the independent international scientific panel and the global dialogue on AI governance was highlighted as a key next step in managing the technology.
• Summit on Education and AI: Slovakia announced it will host a summit on education and AI in Bratislava to bring together international actors to find solutions for a responsible approach to the technology.
• UN Food Systems Summit Follow-up: Italy noted its role in co-organising the third UN Food Systems Summit and its commitment to the major infrastructure project of the Lobito Corridor as part of its “Mattei Plan for Africa.”

---

Statistics and data

• Ukraine: “Just recently, 19 simple Russian drones violated Polish airspace, and only four were shut down.”
• Kenya: “Today, 93% of Kenya’s electricity comes from renewable sources, geothermal, wind, solar, and hydro.” … “Implementing our new NDCs will require US dollars 56,000,000,000.” … “during the IMF’s recent allocation of special drawing rights, 64% went to wealthy nations… while the poorer countries received just 2.4%.”
• Paraguay: “7,000,000 Venezuelans have left their homeland.” … “We have seen economic growth of 5.9% in the first quarter of this year, while at the same time the regional average barely reached 2%.” … “Our inflation stands controlled at 4.2%.” … “Our unemployment levels have fallen to historic lows, 5.6% in the first quarter this year.” … “118,000 people emerged from poverty in a single year. Extreme poverty fell to 4.1%.”
• Estonia: “nearly 40% of our electricity comes from renewable sources.”
• Marshall Islands: “Our nation bears the legacy of 67 atmospheric nuclear tests between 1946 and 1958.”
• Congo: “In 2025, more than 40% of the world’s armed conflicts are taking place on the African Continent.” … “In certain African regions, one child in two lives in a conflict affected area.”
• Madagascar: “Madagascar is a sanctuary of nature with 5% of its global biodiversity and 80% of endemic species.”
• Hungary: “A huge wave of refugees, 1,300,000.” … “We have stopped 1,000,000 illegal migrants at our southern border.” … “We have spent multiple billions of dollars in order to be able to protect our border.” … “The European Commission forces us to pay €1,000,000 penalty on a daily basis.” … “5% of GDP we spend on supporting the families.” … “Young couples can take €28,000 of preferential loan.”
• Italy: “According to the Global Peace Index 2024, there are currently 56 armed conflicts ongoing in the world, the highest number since the Second World War.”

---

Language analysis

• Metaphor:
  • “Rules are the voice of reason used in international relations.” (Spain)
  • “The memory of the twentieth century calls to us each time that we gather in this general assembly.” (Spain)
  • “What we call the glass palace must be truly a house of glass.” (Italy)
• Analogy:
  • “A time without rules is returning to the Middle Ages.” (Spain)
  • “A world without rules is uncharted territory.” (Spain)
  • “Russia’s trying to do to Moldova what Iran once did to Lebanon.” (Ukraine)
• Anaphora:
  • “Ours is a world that is fast paced and unrestrained, one that frequently brings us to the brink, one in which there are voices that continue to proclaim the end of multilateralism…” (Spain)
• Antithesis:
  • “We stand on the right side of peace and reason, or we stand with violence and intolerance.” (Paraguay)
  • “Because we believe in a future where democracy does not merely survive but flourishes. Because we believe in a future in which development reaches everyone, not just a few.” (Paraguay)
• Rhetorical Question:
  • “Which of the great ideals enshrined therein, peace, dignity, equality, justice, progress, has ceased to be relevant or to represent an ethical imperative?” (Spain)
  • “What can Sudan or Somalia or Palestine or any other people living through war really expect from the UN or the global system?” (Ukraine)
  • “Is the United Nations relevant to the demands of our time?” (Kenya)
• Personification:
  • “The memory of the twentieth century calls to us…” (Spain)
  • “The chaos that shadows our world is a reminder that we cannot afford the luxury of inaction.” (Nigeria)

Oratorical Devices

• Triad or Tricolon (Rule of three):
  • “…retreating into idealism, complacency or shortsightedness.” (Spain)
  • “…to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind.” (Switzerland, quoting the UN Charter)
  • “We need bold multilateralism and a united nations that is not only reformed, but reinvigorated. The UN must be more than a meeting place. It must be a working place for people, for peace, and for our planet.” (Sierra Leone)

• Other rhetorical devices:
  • “a future in which we stand together… a future in which collective security is assured… a future in which human dignity… a future in which collective development is realised… a future in which energy security… a future in which the environment is safeguarded… a future in which national sovereignty…” (Iran)
  • “Because we believe in a future where democracy does not merely survive but flourishes. Because we believe in a future in which development reaches everyone, not just a few.” (Paraguay)

---

Thought-provoking comments

• “The memory of the twentieth century calls to us each time that we gather in this general assembly. It reminds us why this house of the international community was created, under which circumstances it was born, and which dark chapters of history it sought to close definitively.” (Spain)
• “It’s sick, but that’s the reality. Not international law, not cooperation. Weapons decide who survives.” (Ukraine)
• “War tech doesn’t care about geography anymore. It’s now reshaping it.” (Ukraine)
• “No state alone can resolve the crisis plaguing our times. Is by sharing ideas, resources and willingness that we can together build a future of peace, of lasting peace because together, we are better.” (Monaco)
• “Turning a blind eye to Ukraine today is a green light to any future aggressor anywhere in the world.” (Czechia)
• “It happened. Therefore, it could happen again. This is the core of what we have to say.” (Switzerland, quoting Primo Levi)
• “Institutions rarely fail because they lack vision or ideals. More often, they drift into irrelevance when they do not adapt, when they hesitate to act, and when they lose legitimacy.” (Kenya)
• “You cannot claim to be the United Nations while disregarding the voice of 54 nations. It is not possible.” (Kenya)
• “No society will survive if it sets fire to the future to simply heat the present.” (Argentina)
• “Fighting corruption is dangerous, but not fighting corruption is even more dangerous.” (Sri Lanka)
• “If the UN is absent, conflicts are not resolved without it, which is not in our common interests. The UN is needed as a mediator.” (Finland)
• “Leadership is not the loudest voice in the room. It is the clearest voice for justice.” (Sierra Leone)

---