The 80th session of the UN General Assembly (UNGA 80)

23 Sep 2025 - 30 Sep 2025

New York, USA

Event webpage

This just-in-time reporting provides an analysis of the general debate of the 80th session of the UN General Assembly (UNGA 80), held from 23 to 29 September 2025 in New York. It offers an in-depth examination of the proceedings, including a summary of key discussions, a survey of points of agreement and disagreement, and a linguistic analysis.

The report was produced using a hybrid approach, combining the expertise of human analysts with artificial intelligence. While the primary focus is on statements concerning AI and digital technologies, the analysis also covers other critical issues, including economic development and international security.


Follow-up: Proposals and commitments

The UN General Assembly Debate is an occasion for nations to present proposals and make commitments. This section provides a survey of all subsequent follow-up actions and pledges. These include: financial pledges, announcements of conferences and summits to be hosted, launches of new policy initiatives, establishment of new bodies, and other concrete actions.

The survey begins with follow-up measures endorsed by more than 10 countries, followed by those proposed by individual nations.


Proposals endorsed by more than 10 countries

  • UN Reform (UN 80 Initiative): The Secretary-General’s “UN 80” reform initiative was widely endorsed, with speakers committing to engage in the process to make the organisation more effective, efficient, and representative. This includes the urgent and long-overdue reform of the Security Council. (Switzerland, Kenya, Czechia, Latvia, and many others)
  • Climate Action (COP30): Numerous speakers called for increased ambition and concrete action ahead of the COP30 climate conference in Brazil, including the submission of stronger nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and the delivery of promised climate finance. (Spain, Latvia, Marshall Islands, Australia)
  • Peace Efforts in Ukraine: Several speakers committed to continuing diplomatic efforts to achieve a just and lasting peace in Ukraine, with a focus on upholding the principles of the UN Charter. (Spain, Czechia, Albania, Italy)
  • Middle East Peace Process: There were widespread calls to relaunch a credible political process to achieve a two-state solution for Israel and Palestine, with several nations offering to play a role in this process and in the reconstruction of Gaza. (Spain, Monaco, Cyprus, Finland, Italy)
  • Haiti Security Mission: Kenya, as the lead nation of the MSS mission in Haiti, urged the Security Council to ensure sustained and coordinated international attention and a careful and orderly transition as the mission’s mandate comes to an end. Panama and the Dominican Republic called for the mission to be transformed into a more robust, UN-backed force.
  • Implementation of the “Pact for the Future”: Switzerland, Albania, and others called for the immediate implementation of the “Pact for the Future” and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
  • International Conference on the Protection of Civilians: Costa Rica announced it will host the second international conference on the political declaration on strengthening the protection of civilians from the use of explosive weapons in populated areas.
  • AI Governance Dialogue: Costa Rica and Spain’s leadership in establishing the independent international scientific panel and the global dialogue on AI governance was highlighted as a key next step in managing the technology.
  • Adoption of a General Assembly resolution endorsing the ICJ opinion on climate: Micronesia called on the General Assembly to adopt a resolution endorsing the recent International Court of Justice’s advisory opinion on climate change to signal that upholding climate obligations under international law is a shared duty.

Proposals by individual nations

54 proposals
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Survey of arguments made during the 80th UN General Assembly Debate

Based on an analysis conducted by DiploAI, a total of 1281 distinct arguments were put forward by heads of state during the 80th UN General Assembly General Debate, highlighting the key priorities and diverse perspectives that defined the international dialogue. 297 arguments focus on AI digital issues. 

1281 overall arguments
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297 arguments on AI and digitalisation
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Consult UN GA 80 AI assistant

Disclaimer: This is not an official session record of the UN GA 80. DiploAI generates these resources from audiovisual recordings, and they are presented as-is, including potential errors. We strive for accuracy to the best of our ability.


Linguistic analysis

A linguistic analysis of the national statements delivered during the 80th UN General Assembly General Debate reveals that diplomats strategically employed a suite of linguistic and rhetorical devices to frame their arguments, persuade a global audience, and navigate the complex discourse on emerging issues like AI and digital governance.

Metaphore

metaphor is a figure of speech that directly describes one thing by stating that it is another, different thing, in order to suggest a shared quality or characteristic. It creates an implicit, hidden comparison without using the words “like” or “as” (which would make it a simile). It transfers the qualities of one concept to another.

Examples: “The world is a stage.” (This suggests that life shares traits with a play, such as people having roles, performing, and experiencing entrances and exits.)


  • “This General Assembly Hall is the heartbeat of that truce.” (The UN Secretary-General)
  • “The pillars of peace and progress are buckling under the weight of impunity.” (The UN Secretary-General)
  • “The UN is a moral compass, a force for peace and peacekeeping, a guardian of international law, a catalyst for sustainable development, a lifeline for people in crisis, a lighthouse for human rights.” (The UN Secretary-General)
  • “The signing of the charter in 1945 gave hope to millions, gave us a north star that guided our path from the ashes of war.” (The President of the General Assembly)
  • “We are here today. Because at its best, the United Nations is more than a meeting place. It’s a moral compass, a force for peace and peacekeeping, a guardian of international law, a catalyst for sustainable development, a lifeline for people in crisis, a lighthouse for human rights, and the center that transforms your decisions…” (The UN Secretary-General)
  • Rules are the voice of reason used in international relations.” (Spain)
  • “The memory of the twentieth century calls to us each time that we gather in this general assembly.” (Spain)
  • “What we call the glass palace must be truly a house of glass.” (Italy)
  • “Born from the ashes of the Second World War, the United Nations emerged as a beacon of hope for humanity.” (Montenegro)
  • “UN Agenda 2030 remains our guiding light for sustainable development.” (Montenegro)
  • “the UN is the proverbial town square of our modern global village” (Ghana)
  • “The tremors of the international order have opened deep geopolitical fault lines.” (North Macedonia)
  • “Jerusalem is the jewel of our heart and our eternal capital.” (Palestine)
  • “The European Union must break the armour of consensus as soon as possible if it wants to complete that reunification of Europe” (North Macedonia)
  • “This is a lightning strike of change, a technological revolution” (United Kingdom)
  • “If events like these constitute your life experience, you do not believe that the world is a rose garden.” (Norway)
  • “The winds of conflicts are blowing across almost all continents, all marked with blatant violations of international law.” (Barbados)
  • “We lifted a dark cloud that could have claimed millions and millions of lives.” (Israel)
  • “To every Pakistani, you stood as one unbreakable wall of Binyanum masseuse, excellencies.” (Pakistan)
  • “This United Nations was the phoenix that rose from that darkness, the highest expression of our commitment to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security.” (Ireland)
  • “The floor is not in the hammer, but in the hand that lets it fall.” (Bahamas)
  • “Education is not a narrow path to employment. It is a broad road to resilience, to innovation, and to peace.” (Grenada)
  • “Peace requires daily care like a newborn baby to be protected from infections, the cold and the heat, the indifference and the pessimism.” (Armenia)
  • “The world is now facing the harsh reality that might makes right, and that interdependence is no longer the cornerstone of peace, but rather a tool of threat and coercion.” (Cambodia)
  • “We are suffering from the dictatorship of the algorithm.” (Cuba)
  • “The Security Council, the guardian of peace, has too often been paralysed, restricted by veto, divided by interests, and mute in the face of grave injustice.” (Brunei Darussalam)
  • “Where GDP is a static snapshot, the MVI is a living lens. It sees susceptibility. It weighs shocks. It measures exposure.” (Saint Kitts and Nevis)
  • Reform is justice. Reform is prudence. Reform is protection and equity.” (Saint Kitts and Nevis)
  • Spiraling oppositions underway in various parts of our world… are only the tip of the iceberg.” (Eritrea)
  • “Military dominance, which is an expired currency of a bygone era, is not moral tender and cannot purchase peace and stability.” (Saint Lucia)
  • “The old military order, though fraught with contradictions, is pregnant with renewal… But with diplomacy as the midwife, this troubled gestation can deliver a new era of peace and stability.” (Saint Lucia)
  • “The UN Charter is the bedrock of our foreign policy. It is a compass that guides our actions on the global stage.” (Nepal)
  • “The Security Council is paralysed by the recourse to the veto, which has become systematic. International law and the norms which have guided us to date are being called into question, a dangerous trend.” (Djibouti)
  • “The Security Council must not be the graveyard of conscience.” (Djibouti)
Analogy

An analogy is a comparison between two different things, typically for the purpose of explanation or clarification. It highlights the similarities in the relationship between the parts of each thing, rather than just the things themselves.

Simple Example: “A heart is to a body as a pump is to a water system.” This doesn’t just compare a heart and a pump; it explains that the relationship a heart has to a body (circulating blood) is similar to the relationship a pump has to a water system (circulating water).


  • multipolerity without effective multilateral institutions can court cows as Europe has learned the hard way, resulting in World War one.” (The UN Secretary-General)
  • “The climate crisis does not stop at borders. CO2 emissions anywhere affect people everywhere. Even the wealthiest cities in the world cannot shield themselves from wildfires.” (The President of the General Assembly)
  • “What kind of a human conscience can possibly bear this? Possibly. How can one stay silent vis-à-vis this? In a world where children are dying of starvation and lack of medication, can we possibly have calm and peace?” (Türkiye)
  • “A time without rules is returning to the Middle Ages.” (Spain)
  • “A world without rules is uncharted territory.” (Spain)
  • “Russia’s trying to do to Moldova what Iran once did to Lebanon.” (Ukraine)
  • “Our people will remain rooted like the olive trees, firm as the rocks.” (Palestine)
  • “Of everything that man erects and builds in his urge for living, nothing is in my eyes better and more valuable than bridges… They are more important than houses, more sacred than temples… this timeless truth reminds us that bridges are not only structures of stone, but structures of peace.” (Montenegro, quoting Ivo Andric)
  • “My first days in office after my return felt as though I had just awakened from a Rip Van Winkle-style sleep.” (Ghana)
  • “I wonder if the UN is turning into the League of Nations.” (North Macedonia)
  • “If it looks like a duck, it swims like a duck, and quacks like a duck, well, then it must be a duck. The crimes in Gaza must stop.” (Ghana)
  • “I am reminded of the old African proverb, and I quote, when elephants fight the grass gets trampled, end of quote. With a small island developing states, we are the grass.” (Dominica)
  • “Giving the Palestinians a state one mile from Jerusalem after October 7 is like giving Al Qaeda a state one mile from New York City after 11 September. This is sheer madness.” (Israel)
  • “However, there is an old saying about a musical instrument that sums up well the vex question of Palestinian statehood recognition. If the string is too tight, it will snap. But if it is too loose, the instrument will not play.” (New Zealand)
  • Madam president, we must remind ourselves that this is not a video game. This is not science fiction, and Palestinians are not imaginary people.” (Saint Lucia)
Paralelism

Parallelism is a writing technique that uses the same grammatical structure for two or more parts of a sentence, list, or idea. Its primary purpose is to create balance, rhythm, and clarity, making the text more memorable and forceful. It makes sentences “parallel” by using matching words, phrases, or clauses.

Famous Example: “Government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the Earth.” — Abraham Lincoln
(The parallel prepositional phrases “of…, by…, for…” create a powerful, rhythmic effect.)


  • “A world of raw power or a world of laws? A world that is a scramble for self-interest or a world where nations come together.” (The UN Secretary-General)
  • “Rising smoke from bombed-out cities. Rising anger in fractured societies. Rising seas, swelling coastlines.” (The UN Secretary-General)
  • “That is not naivete. It is hard-headed pragmatism.” (The UN Secretary-General)
  • “He says we should spend less on defence — so he wants us to be defenceless.” (The President of the General Assembly)
  • “We came, we saw, we conquered.” (The UN Secretary-General)
  • “Words, not weapons. Diplomacy, not warfare. Solidarity, not confrontation.” (Luxembourg)
  • “We are not better than anyone, and no one is better than us.” (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)
  • “There can be no peace without development, no development without peace, and neither peace, no development, or sustainable without respect for human rights.” (Mauritius)
  • “Progress and peril, innovation and instability, hope and hardship coexisting side by side.” (Grenada)
  • “We must help rebuild markets so that merchants trade rather than flee. We must help rebuild schools so that children learn rather than languish. We must help rebuild hospitals so that mothers are treated rather than traumatised.” (Saint Kitts and Nevis)
Hyperbole

Hyperbole is a figure of speech that uses extreme and obvious exaggeration for emphasis or dramatic effect. It is not meant to be taken literally. It overstates something to highlight a point or create a strong impression.

Example: “I’ve told you a million times to clean your room.” “I’m so hungry, I could eat a horse.”


  • “In my first term, I built the greatest economy in the history of the world.” (United States)
  • “I ended seven unendable wars.” (United States)
  • “I’ve told you a million times.” (The President of the General Assembly)
  • “Humanity had descended into the abyss.” (Ireland)
  • “Surely, the hottest part of hell is reserved for those perpetrators of genocide and those who are complicit in it.” (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)
Rhetorical question

rhetorical question is a question that is asked not to get an answer, but to make a point or create a dramatic effect. The person asking it either implies the answer is obvious or they immediately provide the answer themselves. It’s a persuasive technique used to engage the audience and emphasise a statement by framing it as a question.

Example: “Are you kidding me?” (Expressing disbelief, not seeking information.)


  • “What kind of world do we choose to build together?” (The UN Secretary-General)
  • “Would a single person be better off without it?” (The President of the General Assembly)
  • “What is the purpose of the United Nations?” (United States)
  • “Who will save them? Who will save the innocent?” (Indonesia)
  • “How long before we hold all nations to the same standards?” (Jordan)
  • “Is this a dream? Maybe. But this is the beautiful dream that we must work together towards.” (Indonesia)
  • “Which of the great ideals enshrined therein, peace, dignity, equality, justice, progress, has ceased to be relevant or to represent an ethical imperative?” (Spain)
  • “What can Sudan or Somalia or Palestine or any other people living through war really expect from the UN or the global system?” (Ukraine)
  • “Is the United Nations relevant to the demands of our time?” (Kenya)
  • “What the next acronyms of our global development aspirations will be.” (Somalia)
  • “Now is the time to ask ourselves what has gone wrong and what steps must be taken to correct these challenges… what is the UN doing to address these issues effectively?” (Eswatini)
  • “For what? To take ownership over natural resources, to take control over commodities” (Bolivia)
  • “so today, Madam President, I stand here in this exact spot and ask the world, if not now, then when?” (Ghana)
  • “What kind of peace, development or protection of human rights can we even talk about if this kind of violence is allowed…?” (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
  • “Who takes hostage grandmothers and grandchildren? Hamas does.” (Israel)
  • “Who would have lived to tell what happened?” (Pakistan)
  • “Can none of these persons pause and reflect upon the question posed unanswered by all the world’s great religions.” (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)
  • “But where we ask is the quality of leadership that can pull Israelis and Palestinians back from the abyss to project hope to the victims of this intolerable violence.” (New Zealand)
  • “Is this what we really want?” (Bahamas)
  • “But can we remain lucky every season, every single year?” (Bahamas)
  • “Why did they wait so long?” (Russian Federation)
  • “Is it surprising to anyone, therefore, that based on publicly available data from United Nations and other agencies, at least sixty-six thousand and fifty-three Palestinians have been killed.” (Saint Lucia)
Antithesis

Antithesis is a rhetorical device that places two strongly contrasting or opposite ideas in a balanced grammatical structure to highlight their difference. This side-by-side placement creates a powerful and memorable effect. It uses parallel structure to emphasize a stark contrast.

Example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.” The contrasting ideas “best” and “worst” are framed in an identical grammatical structure, making the contrast between them even sharper.

Famous Example: “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” — Neil Armstrong


  • “Cooperation over chaos, law over lawlessness, peace over conflict.” (The UN Secretary-General)
  • “Lies turned into truth, and truth turned into lies.” (Peru)
  • “We are here today to discuss world peace and the world’s shared prosperity. We are not here for some other reason.” (Republic of Korea)
  • “We stand on the right side of peace and reason, or we stand with violence and intolerance.” (Paraguay)
  • “Because we believe in a future where democracy does not merely survive but flourishes. Because we believe in a future in which development reaches everyone, not just a few.” (Paraguay)
  • “The absence of the world war has not always meant the presence of genuine peace and prosperity in the world.” (Montenegro)
  • “On the one side, there is a widespread national front… In return, we have an exclusionary sectarian fascist organisation” (Yemen)
  • “amid everyday violence, the world is oscillating between nihilistic pessimism and hedonistic escapism, between hopeless lamentation and heartless indifference” (North Macedonia)
  • “For Israel, every civilian casualty is a tragedy. For Hamas, it’s a strategy.” (Israel)
  • “As the prophets of Israel foretold in the Bible, you’ve turned good into evil and evil into good.” (Israel)
  • “A world not governed by rules will be a world where the strong impose their will and the weaker will pay the price.” (Iceland)
  • “Instability anywhere is instability everywhere.” (Zambia)
  • “Landlocked need not mean isolated and encased.” (Zambia)
Allusion

Allusion is a literary device where a writer or speaker makes a brief, indirect reference to a person, place, thing, idea, or event from history, literature, mythology, religion, or culture. It relies on the audience’s shared knowledge to understand the reference and its deeper meaning without it being explicitly explained.

Example: “He was a real Romeo with the ladies.” This doesn’t just mean the man was romantic. It alludes to Shakespeare’s Romeo, implying he was passionate, impulsive, and a classic lover.


  • “The arc of the moral universe is long, but it bends toward justice.” (Saint Kitts and Nevis)
  • “I believe that the root causes of Russian aggression are primarily ideological. Russia refers to an imperial vision that treats entire nations as colonial property. It denies them subjectivity on a regular basis, claiming that they are artificial constructs, and it justifies the invasion as a historical correction.” (Poland)
  • “we will reenact the Thucydides’ Melian Dialogue with the strong doing what they can and the weak what they must.” (North Macedonia)
  • “Today, we are reminded of the million dialogue of the Greek historian Thucydides… The strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must.” (Belgium)
  • “I am reminded of the words of the famous British novelist, Charles Dickens in his acclaimed novel… ‘It was the best of times. It was the worst of times’… As we celebrate eighty years of the existence of the United Nations, we are living a tale of two worlds.” (Dominica)
  • “It all seems, in the words of Chinua Achebe, to be falling apart.” (Barbados)
  • “The survivors are entitled, my friends, to use the words of Bob Marley. How can you be sitting there telling me that you care? When every time I look around, the people suffer in the suffering in every way, in everywhere.” (Barbados)
  • “As the prophets of the Israel foretold in the Bible, you’ve turned good into evil and evil into good.” (Israel)
  • “To every Pakistani, you stood as one unbreakable wall of Binyanum masseuse, excellencies.” (Pakistan)
  • “…through the words of the Hebrew prophet Micah, what does the Lord require of us to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with our God.” (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)
Anaphora

Anaphora is a rhetorical device that involves the deliberate repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses, sentences, or lines. It uses repetition to create a powerful rhythm, build emphasis, and evoke emotion.

Famous Example:We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills…” — Winston Churchill


  • “Ours is a world that is fast paced and unrestrained, one that frequently brings us to the brink, one in which there are voices that continue to proclaim the end of multilateralism…” (Spain)
  • “We must act quickly to protect lives, to protect the innocence of children, to provide youth with a future” (Haiti)
  • Haiti wants peace. Haiti expects peace. Haiti has the right to peace.” (Haiti)
  • “We cannot normalise cruelty. We cannot normalise hatred. We cannot normalise xenophobia and racism.” (Ghana)
  • “We’re tired of the continued image of poverty-stricken… We’re tired of having people extract the most… We’re tired of not being represented…” (Ghana)
  • “They beheaded men. They raped women. They burnt babies alive.” (Israel)
  • Trust between neighbors, trust between the governed and the governing, trust in our instructions, trust in our social order, trust in our health systems, trust in our global rules, governance structures.” (Barbados)
  • Africa is demanding justice because it has paid with its blood and its own resources for the prosperity of other continents. Africa is demanding justice because between 8090% of its cultural heritage is today in foreign museums. Africa is demanding justice because African human remains remain in the hands of foreigners outside of the continent…” (Togo)
  • “It was not wealth that brought me here. It was not privilege that brought me here. It was access.” (Grenada)
  • “We must cut emissions deeply and quickly, scale finance fairly and urgently, and equip vulnerable nations with the tools to survive and to thrive.” (Saint Kitts and Nevis)
  • “We will never give up sovereignty, abandon the right existence and violate the constitution… We will never give up nuclear, which is our state law… we will never walk away from this position.” (Democratic People’s Republic of Korea)
  • “A better future for our United Nations, a better future for the international community, and a better future for the whole of humanity.” (Algeria)
Personification

Personification is a figure of speech in which a thing, idea, animal, or even a natural force is given human attributes, characteristics, or feelings. It makes the non-human seem human to create a vivid image or to help explain an idea.

Example: “The wind whispered through the trees.”
(Whispering is a human action; the wind is described as if it can speak.)


  • “The memory of the twentieth century calls to us…” (Spain)
  • “The chaos that shadows our world is a reminder that we cannot afford the luxury of inaction.” (Nigeria)
  • “Civilised discourse tempered with patience and calm has given way to a bellicosity of language shouted across continents and oceans…” (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)
Triad – ‘Rule of three’

triad is the use of three parallel words, phrases, or clauses to make ideas more memorable, impactful, and complete. Its power comes from creating a rhythm that feels balanced and whole to the human ear, often building to a climax.

Example: “Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”


  • “…retreating into idealism, complacency or shortsightedness.” (Spain)
  • “…to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind.” (Switzerland, quoting the UN Charter)
  • “We need bold multilateralism and a united nations that is not only reformed, but reinvigorated. The UN must be more than a meeting place. It must be a working place for people, for peace, and for our planet.” (Sierra Leone)
  • peace and security, sustainable development, and human rights, as the bedrock of all United Nations action” (Montenegro)
  • “a future of stability, a future of progress, and a future of common success” (Montenegro)
  • “a war of genocide, destruction, starvation, and displacement” (Palestine)
  • one state, one law and one legal security force” (Palestine)
  • “to freedom, dignity, independence and sovereignty” (Palestine)
  • accessible, affordable, predictable, and just” (Somalia)
  • dialogue, peace, stability and sustainable development.” (Georgia)
  • development, respect for human dignity and peace.” (Haiti)
  • “Better Together, eighty years and more for peace, development and human rights” (Multiple speakers, citing the theme)
  • “You condemn us, You embargo us, and you wage political and legal warfare…” (Israel)
  • “…to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with our God.” (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)
  • “…one nation, one people, one country.” (Papua New Guinea)
  • Justice, Peace, Respect.” (Germany)
  • “To prevail against perennial injustices, domination, decit, coercion, intimidation, plunder, and monopolization, whatnot.” (Eritrea – The core sequence of negative concepts is a rhythmic sequence)
  • “To live in peace, democracy with dignity and freedom.” (Honduras)
  • “A world where prosperity is shared, security is collective, and peace is lasting.” (Canada)
Ad Hominem

Ad hominem is attacking the person making an argument instead of the argument itself. It’s a fallacy because it diverts attention from the logic and evidence, which is what actually matters.

Example: “Don’t listen to his health advice; he’s out of shape.”


  • “Those who peddled the blood libels of genocide and starvation against Israel are no better than those who peddled blood libels against the Jews in the Middle Ages when they falsely accused us of poisoning wells, spreading plague, and using the blood of children to bake Passover matzahs.” (Israel)
  • “…the French regime who’s nostalgic for the colonial era and concerned by the loss of influence in the Sahel, support for Ukrainian regime is a maneuver that’s consistent, which aims to occupy the attention of the international community, focusing it the attention on the war in Ukraine, at the same time sponsoring terrorist groups who are growing in number in the Sahel.” (Mali)
  • “The current secretary of state of The United States is the reincarnation of that macabre figure.” (Cuba)
  • “It is the height of rudeness and vulgarity by which this failed poet has spoken and this coup plotter. It is only the illusion of a soldier and lowly conduct that does not deserve anything but a codescendence, and it only inspires disgust.” (Algeria)
Straw man

Straw Man is misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack. It’s a fallacy because it argues against a distorted, weaker version of the original point.

Example:

  • Original: “We should have more regulations on carbon emissions.”
  • Straw Man: “So you want to destroy the economy and ban all cars? That’s ridiculous!”

  • “Wait a minute. We believe in a two state solution where the Jewish state of Israel will live side by side in peace with the Palestinian state. There’s only one problem with that. The Palestinians, they don’t believe in this solution. They never have. They don’t want a state next to Israel. They want a Palestinian state instead of Israel.” (Israel)
Reducito ad absurdum

Reductio ad Absurdum is disproving an argument by showing that its logical conclusion leads to an absurd or ridiculous outcome. It’s a logical technique that demonstrates the original premise must be false because it results in a contradiction or an impossible situation.

Example:

Reductio: “Then a magician truly saws a person in half, and optical illusions are impossible.”

Claim: “You can always trust what you see with your own eyes.”


  • “Would a country committing genocide plead with the civilian population it is supposedly targeting to get out of harm’s way? Would we tell them get out if we want to commit genocide? What? Did the Nazis ask the Jews to leave, kindly leave, go out?” (Israel)
Red herring

Red Herring is introducing an irrelevant point to divert attention from the real issue. It’s a fallacy because it sidetracks the argument, leading the discussion away from what is actually important.

Example:

  • Argument: “Your policy has failed to reduce crime rates.”
  • Red Herring: “Why are you talking about crime when we should be discussing my excellent education record?”

  • “So first at the UN, let’s do a pop quiz, and raise your hand if you know the answer. Here’s the first question. Who shouts death to America? Is it a) Iran, b) Hamas, c) Hesbollah, d) the Houthis, or e) all of the above?” (Israel)
Appeal to authority

Appeal to Authority is using the opinion of an authority figure as evidence in an argument, even if they are not a legitimate expert on the topic. It becomes a fallacy when their authority is irrelevant to the subject, making the argument weak and misleading.

Example:

  • Fallacious: “A famous actor says this diet pill works, so it must be effective.” (The actor is not a doctor or scientist.)
  • Valid: “Leading cardiologists say this diet pill is effective, based on clinical trials.” (The authority is relevant and qualified.)
Appeal to emotions

Appeal to Emotion relies on feelings like fear, pity, or pride to win an argument, instead of using logic and evidence.

Example:

  • Argument: “This policy will raise taxes by 3%.”
  • Appeal to Emotion: “If you support this tax, you’re betraying hardworking families and starving our children!” (Uses guilt and fear instead of discussing the policy’s merits.)

  • “They burnt babies alive. They burnt babies alive in front of their parents. What monsters.” (Israel)
  • “I leave you with an image that has stayed with me for the last week of a young Palestinian girl of six or seven years old, walking in the midst of the rubble in Gaza. Her eyes were hollow and full of despair… she carried her sister on her shoulders, both shoulders, clearly recognizing that it was she who would have to carry the burden of taking them to safety.” (Barbados)
False dilemma

False Dilemma is presenting a complex situation as having only two opposing choices, when in reality more options exist. It’s a fallacy because it creates an oversimplified and misleading either/or scenario to force a choice.

Example: “You’re either with us, or you’re with the terrorists.” (It ignores all neutral or alternative positions.)


  • “To overcome that storm, you have to stand with Israel, but that’s not what you’re doing.” (Israel)
  • “These are the times that define us, either we’re in favour of peace and life, or we are cowardly promoters of war, misery and death.” (Nicaragua)
Slippery slope

Slippery Slope is arguing that a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related, extreme events. It’s a fallacy because it assumes this chain reaction will happen without providing evidence that each step is likely to occur.

Example: “If we allow this minor regulation, soon the government will control every aspect of our lives.”


  • “You can’t appease your way out of jihad, and you won’t escape the Islamist storm by sacrificing Israel.” (Israel)
Sarcasm

Sarcasm is the use of irony to mock or convey contempt. It’s a rhetorical device where the intended meaning is the opposite of the literal words, often delivered with a distinctive tone.

Example: Saying “What a beautiful day!” during a torrential downpour.


  • “Last month, even the UN not exactly a supporter of Israel. You’re supposed to laugh, by the way.” (Israel)
Polysyndeton

Polysyndeton is the deliberate use of multiple conjunctions (like “and,” “or,” “but”) in close succession, especially where they are not grammatically necessary. Its effect is to slow the rhythm, add weight and emphasis, or create a sense of overwhelming abundance or continuity.

Example: “We have ships and men and money and supplies.” (Instead of “We have ships, men, money, and supplies.”)


Polysyndeton

  • “Financial crisis that started in 02/2008, which then triggered fiscal crises across many of the world’s countries. And if that was not enough, a social crisis characterised by rising inequality with the consequences there too, be it substance abuse, mental health challenges, homelessness, or human trafficking. Then there was a global pandemic lasting two to three years and taking the lives of millions of people. And for those surviving, they had restricted movement and restricted choices.” (Barbados)
Climax

Climax is the arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in order of increasing importance or power. Its effect is to build tension and create a sense of rising intensity, leading to a powerful and memorable conclusion.

Example: “It’s a bird! It’s a plane! It’s Superman!”


  • “We’ve hammered the Houthis, including yesterday. We crushed the bulk of Hamas’ terror machine. We crippled Hezbollah, taking out most of its leaders and much of its weapons arsenal… We destroyed Assad’s armaments in Syria. We deterred Iran’s Shiite militias in Iraq. And most importantly, and above anything else that I could say to you or that we did in this past year, in this past decade, we devastated Iran’s atomic weapons and ballistic missiles programs.” (Israel)
Other linguistic devices
  • Simile: “Heat that hangs like a heavy blanket smothers harvests and hardens the soil.” (Saint Kitts and Nevis)
  • Alliteration: “A persistent sense that a better tomorrow is possible even as catastrophes loom and dangers lurk.” (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)
  • Epistrophe:
    • “Half the Khouthi leadership in Yemen, gone. Yuhya Yuhya Senwar in Gaza, gone. Nasser sorry. Hassan Nasrallah in Lebanon, gone. The Assad regime in Syria, gone.” (Israel)
    • “…not only crimes against humanity, but first and foremost, crimes of genocide against the peoples of Africa. Yes. It is a genocide. A genocide. A genocide.” (Togo)
  • Other:
    • “the idea that light could emerge from darkness and that solidarity could triumph over despair.” (Montenegro)
    • “the idea of peace and unity triumph over division and hostility” (Montenegro)